The market demand for woodland botanicals native to North America is rising. Because many of these herbs are harvested from wild populations, concerns for their conservation are also increasing. At the same time, a small but growing number of herb product manufacturers are requiring documentation that the raw material they purchase is certified organic, low in heavy metals, free of pesticide residues, contains a minimum specified level of bioactives, is traceable to its source, and has a voucher specimen. This provides a unique market opportunity for some farmers, particularly those with wooded acreages. With the exception of ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), however, little information exists on the commercial production and marketing of many of these plants. Markets are also unstable and the risks of producing these crops are great.

Joe-Ann H. McCoy

USDA-ARS, North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA

    The National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) is a cooperative effort by public (State and Federal) and private organizations to preserve the genetic diversity of plants by long-term storage of germplasm, primarily in the form of seeds.

    The mission of NPGS includes: (1) the conservation of diverse crop germplasm through collection and acquisition; (2) conducting a variety of germplasm-related research; and (3) encouraging the use of the germplasm collections and associated information for research, crop improvement, and product development. Accession data is maintained via the Germplasm Resources Information Network's database (GRIN http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/). The accessions numbering 466,173 are represented in the NPGS as of 26 February 2006.

    The presentation will summarize how medicinal plant researchers can utilize the NPGS both for acquisition and long-term preservation of research collections. The collections are suitable for a wide variety of research projects ranging from ornamental breeding studies to LC/GC analysis of metabolites of interest. Examples of current research projects will be discussed. The Echinacea collection will be used as a model example of a comprehensive collection that has been preserved via the NPGS and is currently available for research purposes. Illustrations of seed and control-pollinated cage propagation methods, and facilities utilized for seed cleaning, testing, and storage will also be included. In addition, methods for utilization of the GRIN database to view evaluation data, locate passport information, and acquire germplasm will be provided.

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Industrial Crops Session I (Meadowfoam)

Jerry Hatteberg

OMG Meadowfoam Oilseed Growers Cooperative &

Natural Plant Products, Inc., World Headquarters, Salem, OR 97302, USA

    The developing story of a new crop called "Meadowfoam" continues to achieve new levels of profitability and success. This wildflower native to southern Oregon and northern California was successfully bred into a commercially viable rotation crop for grass seed growers by Oregon State University. The unique oil removed from the seed is a broad-based functional ingredient for cosmetics that offers long-term stability. The potential environmental applications for this natural oil and the meal byproduct currently are being evaluated in several research studies.

    Introducing and successful launching a new crop such as Meadowfoam require several important and complex steps. It is a time consuming process that takes individual champions, patience, money, agronomic research, product development, money, technical research, regulatory acceptance, market studies, interested buyers, money, challenges from freeloaders, legal expenses, and a certain degree of luck. Meadowfoam has experienced all of these phases and has recovered from many of the associated pitfalls in the process. Grower profitability and confidence in the crop is are growing. as is, consumer awareness and demand.

    I will review recent Meadowfoam accomplishments by the OMG Meadowfoam Growers Cooperative and their marketing company Natural Plant Products in my presentation. Successful new crop development requires a wide range of important steps that will present very unique challenges before a profitable result is achieved.

R.J. Roseberg¹, J.M. Crane², T.W. Miller³, D. Putman⁴, and S.J. Knapp⁵

    Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.) produces a very stable seed oil that has many unique properties. Meadowfoam is native to the Mediterranean climate region along the U.S. west coast from northern California to southern British Columbia. Because it is well adapted to poorly drained soils, cool, moist springs, and warm dry summers, research and commercialization efforts have occurred almost exclusively in Oregon’s Willamette Valley. Little is known about how changes in day length, climate, and other factors affect the performance of newer meadowfoam varieties, but these effects must be known if expansion in production is to occur beyond the current limited area.

    The objective of this study was to compare the seed and oil yield of two newer and one older variety at four locations along a north-south transect representing the range of meadowfoam’s native habitat within the U.S. west coast Mediterranean climate region.

    For two consecutive years, three meadowfoam varieties (Floral, Knowles, and OMF78) were planted on university research farms near Davis, CA, Medford, OR, Corvallis, OR, and Mt. Vernon, WA. Seeding rate was constant at all sites, but each site was managed by each cooperator using their best judgment and published guidelines regarding fertilizer, planting date, irrigation, and weed control. Bees were provided during pollination. As seeds reached maturity, all above-the ground material was cut, placed in fine mesh bags, and transported to the Corvallis site, where they were dried, threshed, and cleaned under uniform conditions.

In the first season, meadowfoam did not survive the winter at Mt Vernon, although it was not the coldest or wettest site. Seed yield, oil content, and oil yield were greatest at Corvallis, followed by Medford, then Davis. The number of seeds per acre was similar at Corvallis and Medford, but individual seed size was smaller at Medford. Knowles and Floral both had greater yield than OMF78 at Corvallis and Medford, but the reverse was true at Davis.

    For the second season, seed and oil yields were significantly higher at Corvallis, followed by Medford, then by both Mt. Vernon and Davis. Oil content was more uniform across sites in the second season, with Davis slightly greater than the other three sites. Seed size was greatest at Corvallis, but unlike the first year, seed size at Medford was the smallest of the four sites. Knowles had the greatest yield at all locations except Davis, where OMF78 had the greatest yield.

    Along a north-south transect representing the range of meadowfoam’s native habitat, the environment in the Willamette Valley seems to be optimum for production of meadowfoam seed oil. Commercial production may be possible in other regions, but it appears climate strongly affects the yield and quality of meadowfoam seed.

Tony Kavanagh

Peaks and Prairies, LLC, Malta, MT 59538, USA

    Oilseed producers have consistently struggled to generate acceptable returns for their crops. Commodity price scenarios play out constantly as the market surplus continues to be squeezed by the latest industry, biodiesel. Biodiesel manufacturers operate on thin margins and only become profitable due to scale. Efforts are always focused on reducing the feed stock costs, eliminating any possibility for agriculture producers to become profitable supplying this marketplace. Recent demand by the Federal government for biobased products became the focus of this project.

    The objective of our market research and product development was to identify and develop new value-added oilseed markets, which operated on and allowed higher margins, thus creating premiums on the oilseed feed stock, creating more value for the producer.

    Oilseeds and current technologies were researched to identify market channels in which competitive products could be produced and at a cost point acceptable to consumers. Research was undertaken in cooperation with Dr. Duane Johnson, Montana State University, Bozeman and the Biobased Institute to determine the suitability of various oilseeds in the lubricant markets, current demand, price points, product standards/certification, and manufacturability were all evaluated as well. Data provided indicated minimal success in the baser oil categories, with tough competition from low-priced petroleum products. Further research into advanced technology led to the discovery of USDA patented estolides, which converted the plant oils into a high performance lubricant base stock, competitive with current-day synthetics and manufacturability that was in line with the competitive pricing.

    Development of the estolide formulas as a motor vehicle lubricant was undertaken to initially determine operating thresholds for the various compounds and to identify the most promising cost effective formulation. Additional work was undertaken in cooperation with USDA-NCAUR to identify promising new oilseed crops such as Lesquerella and Cuphea, which offer additional beneficial lubrication properties helping extend the operating environment for the motor oil. Lesquerella offers many of the same properties as Castor and will be commercially produced this fall. The initial bench test results of the motor oil formulations have proven the suitability as a replacement to petroleum-based motor oil and estimated large scale manufacture costs appear in line, allowing us to compete head to head with current offerings.

    With the advent of the new Estolide technology in tandem with new oilseed crops such as Lesquerella and Cuphea, commercially viable, superior performing motor oils and other biobased lubricants will help reduce our foreign oil dependency and open new doors for agriculture.

Brooks Dailey

Montana Farmers Union, Great Falls, MT 59401, USA

    Farmers have been under increased strain to maintain profitability. Recently, the rapid rise in oil prices has affected the increase in costs associated with agricultural production. The prices of fertilizer, fuel, and transportation have caused producers to examine additional revenue sources still derived from the same land. This can be done by producers taking a greater role in value-added processing of the crops they grow through a business venture or a cooperative. The principles of a cooperative allow the farmer with limited risk capital to partner with others with the same vision.

    The objective is to describe avenues of new revenue to existing farmers by both traditional practices and new innovative means. Also discussed will be the connective corridor throughout the state that provides relevant information, educational material, and professional guidance needed due to the diversity of agricultural production, size of the state, and costs associated with new ventures.

    The Montana Cooperative Development Center and the Montana Agricultural Innovation Center both have as their mission statements to participate in the formation and direction of value-added agricultural ventures throughout Montana. The Cooperative Development Center utilizes a technical assistance network of eight people to assist in the formation of cooperatives. These cooperatives are formed in rural areas as defined by USDA-RD funding. The Montana Agricultural Innovation Center utilizes five resource centers in Montana to deliver services and beginning capital specific to value-added agriculture.

The Montana Cooperative Development Center model has continued to be funded by both Federal and State dollars. The services and Technical Assistance Network continues to expand. We have presented the Center as a model in other states. The Montana Agricultural Innovation Center started with a one year expected funding allowance, yet has continued for three years due to the Resource Centers maximizing resources and the support of industry leaders. The results have two main evaluation points. The decision of funding and professional guidance is provided based on the merits of the project as it launches. The other evaluation point is at the time the self-sustainability. The projects vary in scope and complexities as well as their success.

Value-added agriculture has matured and diversified as the costs and flat markets conditions continue to make commodity production less profitable. The use of both Centers complement each other as well as provide a stable platform with many resources for the producer. Examples of new agribusiness ventures in Montana will be given.

Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Session I

Kevin D. Kephart

Office of Research and Sponsored Programs, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA

    Americans are becoming increasingly aware of the need for national energy security. Consequently, state and federal agencies are stepping up efforts to develop renewable energy systems that are sustainable and minimize negative environmental impacts. Many people recognize that agriculture has a role in addressing the nation's projected energy problems. Increased involvement of agriculture in production of non-food products raises many issues that will expand research and education from agronomists and environmental scientists. A joint study by the U.S. Department of Energy and USDA estimates availability of 1.3 billion tons of lignocellulosic feedstocks annually for conversion to energy. Additionally, these resources will be used to produce biobased products such as composites, lubricants, and construction materials. Public research and education have an important role to play as a massive re-design of our energy system develops. One effort in this regard has been underway since early 2001: the Sun Grant Initiative.

    The Sun Grant Initiative was authorized by Congress in January 2004 to broaden the role of land grant universities by implementing new programs on renewable energy and biobased industries. The missions of the Sun Grant Initiative are to (1) enhance national energy security through development, distribution and implementation of biobased energy technologies, (2) promote diversification and environmental sustainability of America's agriculture through land-grant based research, extension, and education programs in renewable energy and biobased products, and (3) promote opportunities for biobased economic diversification in rural communities.

    Regional Sun Grant centers include Oregon State University, South Dakota State University, Oklahoma State University, the University of Tennessee, and Cornell University. The regions will emphasize integrated research and educational programs on ag-based renewable energy and biobased industries.

The Sun Grant Initiative has developed recently to a program with support and engagement with three federal agencies. Funding through USDA-CSREES has been the foundation for establishing awareness during the initial years. Support from the U.S. Department of Energy - EERE has resulted in research on feedstock production, conversion technologies, educational programs, and gathering information to support policy development. Lately, funding through the U.S. Department of Transportation will launch Sun Grant research and education programs in each region.

VEGETABLE OIL DERIVATIVES AS MONOMERS FOR EMULSION POLYMERIZATION

Zhangqing Yu, Sharathkumar K. Mendon, Shelby F. Thames, and James W. Rawlins

School of Polymers and High Performance Materials, The University of Southern Mississippi

118 College Drive #10037, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA

    Waterborne coatings employ coalescing solvents to facilitate polymer particles with high glass transition temperatures to coalesce effectively and form smooth non-tacky films. However, these solvents evaporate during the drying process and constitute volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The use of vegetable oil macromonomers (VOMMs) as co-monomers in emulsion polymerization enables good film formation without the use of coalescing solvents. Moreover, VOMMs are derived from renewable resources and offer the potential of post-application crosslinking via auto-oxidation.

    To maximize the utility of renewable resources, it is imperative that VOMM incorporation into emulsions be at the highest levels possible. The inherent hydrophobicity of VOMMs poses challenges during emulsion polymerization, as the monomers do not migrate readily through the aqueous phase.

    In this study, the copolymerization of hydrophilicized soybean oil-based VOMMs with conventional monomers and the properties of the resulting latexes are discussed. Latexes with VOMM content as high as 80% were successfully synthesized. Interestingly, the VOMM latexes displayed low minimum filming temperatures that were independent of the glass transition temperatures (T_g). Thus, high T_g latexes formed smooth, glossy films at ambient temperatures without aid from coalescing solvents. Data from latexes formulated into coatings, and tested for properties as per ASTM standards are discussed. While latexes with the highest VOMM levels exhibited certain performance limitations, other VOMM-based latexes performed competitively against commercial latexes.

Mark. A. Smith

Lipid Biotechnology Group, National Research Council Canada. Plant Biotechnology Institute,

110 Gymnasium Place, Saskatoon, SK. S7N 0W9, Canada.

    World oilseed production for 2005/2006 exceeded 390 Million metric tons (MMT), yielding over 115 MMT of oil. The majority of this product was destined for use as edible oil and for food processing applications with only a small percentage entering the industrial market. The major non-food uses are currently for the production of soaps and detergents and conversion to biofuels.

    Almost all plant oils are triacylglycerol (TAG) oils. Their chemical structure gives them great potential as petrochemical replacements in a wide variety of applications ranging from fuel and lubricants to the manufacture of polymers, foams, and surface coatings. Vegetable oil, therefore, represents a very much underutilized renewable resource for industry. A number of factors, however, may place constraints on the large-scale acceptance of plant oils as industrial feedstocks. These include the limited repertoire of fatty acids synthesized by the major oilseed crop species, and the presence of a mixture of different fatty acids in a typical seed oil.

    Various approaches are currently being taken to improve the suitability of seed oil for industrial use. These include traditional plant breeding, accelerated by advances in genomics and high throughput analysis, and the genetic engineering of oilseeds to introduce novel traits. The challenges and opportunities in tailoring seed oil composition for particular purposes, and the development of new-engineered oilseed crops designed for industrial oil production will be discussed. Examples will include the manipulation of Brassica species to increase erucic acid content, and the production of unusual hydroxy fatty acids in oilseed crops.

Thomas A. McKeon, Xiaohua He, Grace Chen, and Jiann-Tsyh Lin

USDA-ARS-WRRC, Albany, CA 94710, USA

    Castor oil is an important industrial oil used to produce greases, lubricants, coatings, detergents, monomers for plastic production, plasticizers, and cosmetics. It is derived from the castor plant, a Euphorb Ricinus communis L. The oil is unusual in that the fatty acid component is 90% ricinoleic acid, 12-hydroxy oleic acid. Because the castor seed also contains a protein toxin and a potent allergenic protein, there has been considerable interest in developing an alternate source of high ricinoleate oil. However, in attempts to generate transgenic plants producing ricinoleate, researchers have found that the amount of ricinoleate produced is limited, even though the introduced hydroxylase gene is expressed at a high level. We have postulated that the castor seed has enzymes that direct the production and incorporation of ricinoleate into triacylglycerols.

    In an in vitro microsomal system, we have shown that ricinoleate is incorporated six-fold greater extent than oleate in the final step of oil biosynthesis, the acylation of diacylglycerol to triacylglycerol. There are several enzymes that can carry out this final acylation step. These are the acylCoA-dependent diacylglycerol acyltransferases (DGAT), types 1 and 2, and the phospholipid-diacylglycerol acyltransferase (PDAT). We have cloned genes for the two DGATs from developing castor seed and expressed them in yeast. In microsomes prepared from suitably transformed yeast, the DGAT type 1 shows a preference for acylating diacylglycerols containing ricinoleate. The DGAT type 2 shows very poor activity in the yeast expression system, similar to the finding of low activity for the Arabidopsis thaliana DGAT type 2 expressed in yeast. We have also cloned two genes from castor seed encoding acylCoA synthetases (ACS). One of these genes encodes an enzyme that shows preference for using oleate and other "hydrocarbon" fatty acids to acylate free CoASH, whereas the other ACS shows a threefold preference for using ricinoleate to acylate free CoASH. Taken together, the substrate preference of the DGAT type 1 and the ACS account for the sixfold preference we have observed for isolated castor microsomes incorporating ricinoleate into the triacylglycerol fraction.

Cindy Lowery¹, Dick Auld¹, Rial Rolfe², Tom McKeon³, and John Goodrum⁴

¹Plant & Soil Science Dept., Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA

²Microbiology Dept., Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA

³USDA-ARS, Albany, CA 94710, USA

⁴Biological & Agricultural Engineering Dept., University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA

    Ricin is a protein toxin found only in mature castor (Ricinus communis L.) seed that enzymatically destroys the ribosomes of Eukaryotes. The presents of ricin in the high protein meal of castor has historically reduced its value as an animal feed. Because ricin has the potential to be used as a chemical warfare and bioterrorism agent, the production and processing of castor has undergone increased scrutiny by law enforcement and homeland security agents since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The production of castor cultivars with reduced levels of ricin would improve the economics of castor oil production, reduce the potential for accidental poisoning, and eliminate the potential of ricin being used by terrorist.

    Since 1994, Texas Tech University has been developing castor with reduced levels of ricin. The dwarf-internode cultivar, ‘Hale’ developed by Texas A&M University in 1970 was crossed with two Plant Introductions from the Soviet Union PI 258368 and PI 257654 that had been previously selected for reduced levels of ricin. In subsequent segregating generations, individual plants were selected for dwarf-internode growth habit and reduced levels of ricin and RCA120 using a radial immunodiffusion assay. In 2003, 12 F₈ lines were intercrossed to develop a synthetic population, and in 2004 and 2005, this population was screened for semi-dwarf-internode growth habit and lack of shattering. This experimental cultivar is currently being tested in Mississippi and Texas to compare it with the parental cultivar ‘Hale’. Despite the growing demand for castor oil for both historical markets and as a feedstock for biodiesel, domestic production of this new cultivar has been delayed by the lack of oilseed processors willing to address the potential concerns of state and federal agencies with responsibilities to Homeland Security.

COSMETIC ATTRIBUTES OF CUPHEA OIL

Lawrence A. Rheins, James H. Brown, John Hill, and Robert Kleiman

Floratech, 291 East El Prado Court, Chandler, AZ 85225, USA

    Trends in the cosmetic industry continue to lean heavily toward natural and naturally derived ingredients. Cuphea, grown in Minnesota and North Dakota, serves as the source of an oil with essentially no history of industrial use. The oil is rich in capric acid (65-75%) with smaller amounts of other short chain fatty acids. The oil also contains about 10% C18 unsaturated fatty acids.

    Floratech is developing this unique-botanically derived oil for use as a commercial raw material for the cosmetic industry. Mechanical and physical property tests reveal that the oil has similar properties to some commonly used raw materials such as mineral oil and caprylic/capric triglyceride. We have evaluated the response of this oil to oxidation along with the effect of other cosmetic compounds (e.g., sunscreens) as it specifically relates to oxidative stability.

    Cuphea oil has a medium to low spreading characteristic while having a low slip. These attributes are exactly what are needed for sunscreens that stay in place, providing requisite UV protection, yet providing desirable esthetic attributes of non-slippery or greasy upon application. Many low cost sunscreens already use mineral oil, and cuphea oil could be a suitable commercial substitute for this raw material. By coupling this information along with the fact that the oxidative stability of cuphea oil remains high in the presence of sunscreen actives, a strong fit for this ingredient in the highly visible cosmetic category is possible.

Studies are currently underway to evaluate cuphea oil derivatives and their potential role in other cosmetic categories (e.g., bath oil, lipsticks, and lotions/creams).

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Horticultural/Agronomic Crops Session II (Fruits, Nuts, & Vegetables)

Y. Mizrahi¹, E. Raveh², E. Yossov¹, A. Nerd¹, and J. Ben-Asher¹

¹Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel

²Agricultural Research Organization, Gilat Research Station, D.N. Negev 85280, Israel

    With the aim to obtain new fruit crops that require minimum water, we started in 1984 to domesticate some species of cactus known in Latin America as pitayas. Four of these pitayas species are grown in Israel today as fruit crops, and the question that we currently ask ourselves is whether they really meet the expectation of having a water use efficiency (WUE) that is much higher than that of other fruit crops. We give the results of the only irrigation experiment of which we are aware that was conducted with the following vine cacti: Hylocereus undatus and H. polyrhizus known as red pitayas, and Selenicereus megalanthus known as yellow pitaya. For the fourth species, Cereus peruvianus, we give actual data on irrigation and yields based on the experience of farmers.

    The aim of the project was to test the effect of three water regimes [including water shortage treatment(s)] on growth, fruit yield and quality of the three new vine cacti crops, the yellow pitaya and the two red pitayas. The experiments were conducted in the Negev desert of Israel (annual precipitation of 200 mm/year; winter only). Plants were grown under shade nets (40% for red pitaya and 60% for yellow pitaya) and irrigated with ~160 mm irrigation/year (treatment A - control), ~80 mm irrigation/year (treatment B), or ~45 mm irrigation/year (treatment C), keeping soil moisture above -2.2 MPa. In pot experiments, water was withheld for three weeks while stem elongation continued until soil water potential decreased to -3.5 MPa (about 7% volumetric soil moisture), demonstrating the capacity of these plants to absorb water from very dry soils. Yields of shoots and fruit, and fruit quality were assessed for three consecutive years.

    Only treatment C showed significant reduction of yield and fruit size in the Hylocereus species, whereas in S. megalanthus the yield and fruit size were highest in treatment C. Absolute values of yield and fruit size for the yellow pitaya are much lower than the red pitaya and are not related to the irrigation treatments. Root exposures showed a very shallow root system up to 40 cm deep. Yields of red pitaya fruit fluctuated between 35 to 40 ton/hectare/year for which 1600 tons of water were used, i.e., for the production of 1 ton of fruits, 40 to 45 tons of water are required. For citrus, avocado, and mango grown in the same area 340 to 500 tons of water are required for the production of 1 ton of fruit. In practice, WUE for a C. peruvianus orchard (grown outdoors) is about 60 tons of water for production of 1 ton of fruit.

    In terms of horticultural production, fruit price per ton is also important. Taking into account that if accepted in the market, these new crops will acquire much higher prices than the common crops, hence their WUE is even higher in terms of income and profitability. We should realize, however, that the introduction of a new crop into the market remains a major problem.

Lee Reich

Lee Reich Ltd., New Paltz, NY 12561, USA

    The major fruit crops of temperate regions experiencing cold winters include the pome fruits and stone fruits as well as brambles, blueberries, strawberries, and grapes. The goal of the present research has been to identify a number of "uncommon fruits" that might expand this palate. Medlar (Mespilus germanica), cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), and alpine strawberry (Fragaria vesca) were once popular fruits that possess a number of qualities warranting their revival. Where climate is congenial and pest pressures low, juneberry (Amerlanchier spp.) and lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) are worthy of commercial trials. Identification and development of suitable cultivars could bring American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana, perhaps as hybrids with Asian persimmons), gumi (Elaeagnus multiflora), maypop (Passiflora incarnata), and Nanking cherry (Prunus tomentosa) into the marketplace. Ribes spp. are popular in Europe and a century ago once increasing in popularity in the U.S.; new cultivars and increasing consumer awareness of the flavor and health properties of these fruits could make plantings again viable. And finally, pawpaw (Asimina triloba), hardy kiwifruit (Actinidia arguta, A. kolomikta), and shipova (X Sorbopyrus auricularis) are among those "uncommon fruits" adapted over wide regions and worthy of more extensive trial plantings today.

    The market potential of these uncommon fruits derives from their high flavor, their uniqueness, and their relative freedom from pest problems. With these qualities, such fruits would fit well into the rapidly expanding "organic" marketplace as well as upscale and ethnic markets. Uncommon fruits that handle poorly, such as pawpaw, alpine strawberry, and American persimmon, are well suited to those regions having potentially strong local markets either because of tourist influx or because of proximity to large metropolitan areas. Because of their relative freedom from pest pressures, all the "uncommon" fruits mentioned would be ideal for regions where increased suburbanization creates local markets, but also causes conflicts because of pesticide spraying.

    There is no perfect agricultural crop and research goals have been to highlight the strengths and the weaknesses, as well as research needs for each of the uncommon fruits with market potential.

W.F. Tracy¹, C. Vargas1, L. Zepeda², J.K. Pataky³, and M.A. Chandler¹

¹Department of Agronomy, Univ.Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

²School of Human Ecology, Univ. Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

³Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA

    Ustilago maydis the causal organism of common corn smut can cause economic losses wherever maize (Zea mays L.) is grown. However, the galls formed by U. maydis are edible and can be a more profitable crop than the corn itself. Huitlacoche (cuitlacoche), the Hispanicized version of the Nahuatl name for the edible galls, has been consumed by the people of Mexico since pre-contact times. The popularity of huitlacoche is increasing rapidly in the U.S., due both to the increasing size of the Mexican-American community and interest in new foods and fusion cooking, especially in high-end restaurants. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of adding huitlacoche to the product line of Troy Community Farm, an urban, non-profit CSA (community supported agriculture) farm.

    Sporidial suspensions were injected down the silk channel of unpollinated ears of maize. Ears were harvested 14 to 20 days after inoculation. Huitlacoche was marketed fresh on the ear still enclosed in the husks or as frozen galls that had been cut from the cob. We looked at the consumer acceptance of the different products, the consumer price, and whether huitlacoche production fit the farmer’s management system and business objectives.

    The Pataky and Chandler inoculation method was highly effective and gave good yields of galls. For the average farmer, there is a limitation in obtaining and culturing the inoculum. It is not a difficult process, but it is not part of most farmers’ standard techniques. When harvested at peak quality, as defined by flavor, the galls are highly perishable and delicate. At this stage, the galls are gray with a black interior and they split easily. The galls need to be consumed within a few days of harvest. Earlier harvest, when the galls are smaller with a grey interior, results in galls that can be removed from the ear either by plucking or cutting and freezing these galls. Freezing results in some loss of quality, but can be more attractive to chefs who have to plan menus in advance and require a dependable and consistent product. Pataky and Chandler estimated that based on an estimated price of $25 Kg-1, the value of huitlacoche harvested 15 to 17 d after inoculation ranged from $0.70 to $1.68 ear-1.

    While there was a receptive market for huitlacoche in the Madison area, huitlacoche did not fit the system of the Troy Gardens Farmer. This was primarily due to questions on availability of resources for inoculation and the highly perishable nature of the product. Farmers in the U.S. can successfully produce and market huitlacoche to meet the increasing demand; however, the technical and marketing requirements may make huitlacoche a better crop for a farm devoted to highly specialized crops.

James D. McCreight¹ and Jack E. Staub²

¹USDA-ARS, 1636 E. Alisal St., Salinas, CA 93905, USA

²USDA-ARS, Dept. Horticulture, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA

    Melon (Cucumis melo L.) is a complex group of horticultural types long intertwined with mankind for a variety of purposes. Different types are known around the world and often engendering faithful supporters for their local melon as the best. Africa is the center of origin, but centers of diversity may be found throughout Asia and the Iberian Peninsula. Germplasm from the centers of diversity, particularly India, have been found to possess numerous genes for resistance to disease and insect pests of melon.

    Melons are known only as a fresh or lightly processed sweet salad or dessert fruit in many countries, but may be canned as fruit pieces or pressed juice, used for syrup, jam, or flavoring in baked goods. Dehydrated slices can be stored for short or moderate periods and reconstituted. Sour-sweet types are popular in the Middle East. Vegetable types dominate in regions of some countries, e.g., Rajasthan, India, but may be found in other countries such as Italy. Aromatic types, e.g., ‘Queen Anne’s Pocket Melon’ was once popular in the U.S. The ornamental types may be found in other regions of the world. The seeds are useful for their oil and protein, and may be lightly roasted and eaten as nuts.

    Formalized classification of the many melon types has been revised nine times since Naudin’s scheme in 1859. The two most recent revisions reflect the two approaches; one proposed six cultivar-groups, the other, which included examination of melons from central Asia, proposed 16 varieties in two subspecies.

    Molecular and phenotypic analyses of melon diversity indicate that remarkable genetic differences exist among geographic growing regions and cultivar-groups. Distinct differences exist between African melons and those from Spain, Central Europe, Mediterranean, U.S., and Asia, which are themselves dissimilar. These growing regions produce a delightful array of types differing in morphological characters. Numerous primary and secondary fruit skin colors and designs, shapes, interior textures and colors, flesh thickness, and sizes delight the eye, and form the genetic basis for the development of new market types. For instance, fruit flesh thickness ranges from nearly nothing to five or more centimeters, and occur with completely filled or large and empty seed cavities. Interior color can be uniformly orange, green, or white, or grading from one color to another. Moreover, the aroma ranges from nearly undetectable to highly aromatic and could be used to breed novel cultivars. The flesh can be bitter, tasteless, or highly sweet with a range of flavors from subtle to very pronounced.

    There are opportunities for new market types in each of the many existing markets both from introduction of existing horticultural groups and through breeding of novel types. Existing markets, however, largely dictate the types of disease and pest resistant melons that breeders develop and seed companies produce for growers. Thus, the development of new melon market types will require integration of plant breeding and marketing to create market environments where consumers are attracted to novel products.

James Nienhuis

Department. of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin,

Madison, WI 53706, USA

    Domestication in all crops continues, but in vegetables at a different, sometimes slower, sometimes faster rate. Many plants that were domesticated as vegetables in ancient times have been lost or replaced by vegetables that have been introduced. Some vegetables are evolving very slowly, likely due to constraints imposed by the narrow expectations and market demands of growers, processors, marketers, and consumers.

    Variation among cultivars is further constrained because many vegetables are introduced. Rather than developing variation among cultivars with adaptation to different growing environments, the trend has been to use cultural practices and choose locations to adapt the environment to the vegetable. Other vegetables are evolving more rapidly as other consumers are demanding and rewarding novelty in colors, shapes, sizes, and even flavors of traditional vegetables.

    The development of new vegetables is also occurring through selection and utilization of new tissues, e.g., garlic scapes rather than garlic bulbs. The vegetables that are considered new or novel are being developed through selection within the same families as traditional vegetables.

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Ramu Govindasamy¹, Venkat Purduri¹, Richard Van Vranken², William Sciarappa², Albert Ayeni³, James E. Simon⁴, Frank Mangan⁵, Mary Lamberts⁶, Gene McAvoy⁶, and Kim Pappas¹

¹Agricultural Economics and Marketing, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901,USA

²Rutgers CRES, NJ Agric. Expt. Sta., Cook College, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

³International Agriculture, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

⁵Dept. Plant, Soil & Insect Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA

⁶University of Florida, Homestead, FL 33030, USA

DIRECT MARKETING OF U.S. GROWN CHINESE MEDICINAL BOTANICALS: FEASIBILITY AND MARKETING STRATEGIES

J.M. Giblette¹ and C.A. Martin²

¹High Falls Gardens, Philmont, NY 12565, USA

²Sustainable Agriculture Research Center, New Mexico State University, Alcalde, NM 87511, USA

    In the 1990s, a boom followed by a decline due to market saturation in the herbal products industry resulted in losses to some U.S. farmers. To find more effective and profitable ways to market their herbs, grower associations in five different states formed a Medicinal Herb Consortium (MHC) to share information and develop strategies. In 2004-05, the MHC conducted a feasibility study and planning project for marketing domestically grown Chinese medicinal botanicals (CMB) directly to licensed practitioners of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (AOM) in the U.S. Project objectives were to combine existing and new market studies to assess the feasibility of direct marketing, to work with AOM practitioner groups to identify opinion leaders and develop direct marketing relationships, and to determine if herbs grown in different regions could provide an acceptable product mix for the AOM market.

    To gather information and attract AOM practitioners, interviews and informal surveys were conducted, events were staged to show samples, articles were published in professional and trade journals, and presentations were made at practitioner conferences. The results can be summarized as follows:

1. A. A clearly defined market segment served by established educational institutions, product sources, and distribution channels could be identified. Practitioners graduated from accredited AOM colleges, which train herbal practitioners using whole plant parts imported from China, were able to differentiate sensory characteristics of imported and domestic herbs. Presented samples received the most favorable response of all project activities and indicated that direct marketing of fresh and fresh-dried herbs as a new product category was possible and could justify higher prices.

2. B. A well organized AOM profession exists as a cost-effective market. While imports can be expected to dominate the market as practitioners become familiar with the quality of domestic fresh herbs, increases in market share for domestic CMB depend on long term relationships established among farmers and AOM practitioners, including students and representatives of AOM organizations and educational institutions.

3. C. A conclusive preference for domestic herbs grown in different regions proved to be beyond the scope of this project. Regional variations were, however, an asset that could be used advantageously to stimulate comparisons of herb quality, attract practitioners, and encourage support of local production.

    Future marketing by the MHC will feature a "pull" strategy designed to use educational activities to build demand for domestically grown CMB within the AOM profession. Evaluation of products by colleges, clinics, and individual practitioners will be supported by the sale of sample packs containing a collection of several herbs in small quantities.

D.M. Modise, K.K. Mogotsi, E.B. Khonga, and S. Machacha

Crop Science and Production Department, Botswana College of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana

    The Basarwa (Bushmen) of Botswana collect and consume the Kalahari Desert truffle (Kalaharituber myces) annually at the end of the rainy season. As with other mushrooms, the truffles (fruiting bodies) are nutritious with relatively high amounts of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, crude fibre, and vitamins. The collected truffles are generally sold without consideration of the size (diameter), but weight is the preferred method of measurement of the crop.

    This study was carried out to determine the sizes of the truffles that exist in the Kalahari, and also to establish the relationship between the size and nutritional content. Thus, the optimum truffle size could be established and pricing would eventually reflect the size of the crop. This would be particularly important where the crop is collected for export.

    About one ton of truffles was collected from a geo-referenced site in the Kalahari Desert. These were sorted and replicated according to size and batches. Other parameters that were recorded include fresh and dry weight and the nutritional content of the truffles of the various group sizes.

    There were five grades or sizes of truffles with the heaviest truffle weighing about 0.5 kg and the lightest weighing only 25 g. The macronutrient (Na, K, P, and N) concentration was not significantly different among the five different sizes or weight of the truffles. The micronutrients (Cu, Zn, and Mn) were also not significantly different in the five different groups of sizes, but iron (Fe) was significantly higher for the smaller-sized truffles up to the second small- sized ones.

On the whole, there appears to be very little differences in nutritional content parameters that were measured between the small- and the large-sized truffles.         Therefore, it may not be necessary to export the large sized truffles because there is no real extra benefit that may be gained nutritionally.

The size of the truffles would presumably also have a bearing on the costs of packaging and shipping of the produce to far destinations.

Susana Fischer¹, Luis Inostroza¹, Rosemarie Wilckens¹, Marisol Berti¹, ²,

Marcelo Baeza³, and Edgar Pastene⁴

¹Departamento de Producción Vegetal, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 537, Chillán, Chile

²Present address: Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA

³Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Chile

⁴Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Farmacia, Chile

    About 44.6% of the Chilean plant species are endemics, and therefore, they constitute a unique and exclusive genetic heritage in the world. Most of these are main components of indigenous herbolarium and their uses in popular medicine are presently recognized, and therefore, are in constant demand. One of these is Geum quellyon Swee used by Mapuche Amerindians herbolarium due to the supposed properties, among them, principally, as an aphrodisiac. Others confer the plant with antioxidant properties in vitro, although it still remains unknown in its in vivo potentiality. In Chile, information is unavailable about the behavior of G. quellyon. Thus, the anthropologic intervention and indiscriminate cultivation of endemic and native species represent a constant threat to its diversity and ecological balance.

    The objective of this work was to study seed germination, phenology, and chemical and molecular characterization in two populations from different altitudinal distribution (1200 and 200 m above sea level). The assays and evaluations were performed in two G. quellyon populations collected at the 8th Region, Chile, growing in greatly different hydric environments. Significant differences were observed in the maximum germination of seeds from both G. quellyon populations and could be an adaptive consequence of accessions. Optimum germination temperature was 23.3°C, and minimum and maximum temperature were 6.5 and 38.5°C, respectively. In relation to the phenology under crop condition and chemical characterization, both populations differ in phenological behavior. They also showed differences in total polyphenol concentration, expressed as Gallic Acid Equivalents. Both G. quellyon populations have 2n = 42 chromosomes, with size < 3 μm so that the populations from the 8th Region do not present difference in ploidy level. The DNA isolation and its amplification were performed. Fragments of approximately 400 bp were analyzed for genetic diversity.

    There are differences in germination as in phenological behavior in G. quellyon growing at 1200 and 200 m asl. Moreover, there is evidence of accumulation of different concentrations in total polyphenol patterns, which justify evaluating responses to stress.

Ramu Govindasamy¹, James Simon², Venkat Purduri¹, Juliana Asante-Dartey³, Hanson Arthur³,

Bismarck Diawuo³, Dan Acquaye³, and Nicholas Hitimana⁴

¹Agricultural Economics and Marketing, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

²New Use Agriculture & Natural Plant Products Program, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

³P.M.B. (18) Kanda, Accra, H/NO C 205/29, Mempeasem, East Legon, Accra, Ghana

⁴Nicholas Hitimana, ASNAPP Rwanda, PO Box 6052, Kigali, Rwanda

Alice L. Pilgeram¹, David C. Sands¹, Mathew M. Kirkpatrick¹, Brian M. Thompson¹,

Quinn Bloom¹, Darrin L. Boss², Duane L. Johnson³, Edward Dratz⁴,

Frederick T. Barrows⁵, and Nick Dale⁶

¹Montana State University, Plant Science and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA

² Montana State University, Northern Ag Res. Center, 3848 Fort Circle, Havre, MT 59501, USA

³Montana State University, Northwestern Ag Res. Center, 4570 MT Hwy 35, Kalispell, MT 59901, USA

⁴Montana State University, Chemistry and Biochemistry, Bozeman, MT 59616, USA

⁵USDA Fish Technology Center, 4050 Bridger Canyon Road, Bozeman, MT 59715-8713, USA

⁶University of Georgia, Poultry Science, Athens, GA 30602-2772, USA

    Camelina (Camelina sativa) is a plant containing valuable oil, fiber, and high quality protein with many potential uses in both nutritional and industrial applications. This crop can be economically produced throughout Montana providing a much-needed high-value crop with relatively low input costs for Montana producers. The oil can be used to produce biodiesel. The low input costs of camelina enable production of economic oil for biodiesel manufacture without sacrificing profitable farmgate. However, camelina oil is also a rich source of both omega-3-fatty acids (α-linolenic acid (~40%)) and the antioxidant gamma tocopherols. The oil can be used to produce high value foods and cosmetics. The meal can be fed to livestock for production of high omega-3 meats, eggs, and dairy products.

    The objective of our camelina research was to evaluate the oil and meal as food and feed ingredients. Cold-extracted camelina meal has a residual oil content of 10 to 13% and contains >40% protein. This meal has been evaluated as a feed ingredient for the production of egg, goat milk, beef, turkey, dog, and fish. Beef, poultry, dog, and goat show normal weight. Feed rejection has not been observed. The fatty acid profiles of beef, egg, and goat milk were analyzed using GC-MS. In all cases, the camelina meal shows promise as being a high protein diet ingredient competitive with soy protein. Camelina- fed beef and milk from camelina-fed dairy goats contain increased levels of omega-3 fatty acid. The omega-3 content of egg is also increased in chicken fed camelina diets.

    Future research is focused on optimizing camelina-feeds for maximizing omega-3 content in meat, eggs, and dairy. Initial trout feeding trials showed promise. However, in larger trials, fish rejected feeds that contained camelina meal, but did not reject feeds containing camelina oil. Camelina oil is being tested as cooking oil in baked products (bread), salad dressings, and spreads (peanut butter). The potential market for camelina-based food ingredients appears strong given the current interest in omega-3 foods.

Marisol Berti¹, Burton Johson¹, Russ Gesch², and Frank Forcella²

¹Dept. of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA

²USDA-ARS, North Central Soil Conserv. Res. Lab., Morris, MN 56267, USA

    Cuphea (Cuphea viscosissima Jacq. x C. lanceolata W.T. Aiton, PSR23) is a new oilseed crop being developed in North Dakota and Minnesota that has oil rich in medium chain fatty acids. Progress has been made on improving cuphea agronomically, but little is known about nitrogen fertility requirements for cuphea production.

    The objective of this study was to determine the optimum nitrogen application rate for maximizing seed yield and oil content. The experiment was conducted at Casselton and Carrington, ND, and Glyndon and Morris, MN in 2005. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replicates. Treatments (soil + fertilizer N) were 0, 60, 80,100,150, and 200 kg N ha-1 at Casselton and Glyndon; 0, 50, 90, 150, 200, and 250 kg N ha-1 at Carrington; and 0, 40, 80, and 120 kg N ha-1 at Morris.

    Measurements included plant nitrate content at three plant developmental stages [sampling date (1) 7/13 - 7/27, (2) 8/4 - 8/10, and (3) 8/31 - 9/12], seed and biomass yield, 1000-seed weight, oil content, and total plant and seed nitrogen content.

    Plant nitrate content decreased from the first to the last sampling dates at all locations. Plant nitrate content at all sampling dates was significantly higher for the treatments with greater than 90 kg N ha-1 at Carrington. Plant nitrate content at Morris at the last two sampling dates was higher for nitrogen treatments of 80 and 120 kg N ha-1.

    Seed yield was influenced by nitrogen treatments only at the Glyndon location where the highest yield (270 kg ha-1) was obtained with 100 kg N ha-1. Seed yield varied among locations with the highest yields at Morris ranging from 503 to 583 kg ha-1.

Biomass yield, 1000-seed weight, oil content, and plant total nitrogen content were not affected by the nitrogen treatments at any location.

Seed nitrogen content was affected by nitrogen treatments only at the Casselton location where higher seed nitrogen content (2.74 to 2.89%) was determined for nitrogen treatments from 80 to 200 kg N ha-1, compared with the check treatment that produced the lowest seed nitrogen content (2.65%). Cuphea total nitrogen absorption fluctuated between 69 and 83 kg N ha-1 at Carrington, 129 and 171 kg N ha-1 at Casselton, and 83 to 147 kg N ha-1 at Glyndon.

    Accordingly, N fertility appears to have little influence on seed yield, and aboveground biomass, values of which were quite low for the former two variables, and relatively high for the latter. Consequently, the possibility arises that another soil nutrient may be limiting cuphea's ability to convert aboveground biomass to seed yield.

A.D. Pavlista, D.D. Baltensperger, and E.L. Nielsen

Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska,

Scottsbluff, NE 69361, USA

    Oilseed crops are used mostly as a food staple and for industrial oils. With increased emphasis and demand for diesel substitution, acreage of brown mustard (Brassica juncea), canola (B. napus), and camelina (Camelina sativa) as biodiesel is anticipated to increase in the High Plains. The objective of this study is to elucidate the phenology of these crops in the western Nebraska and their adaptation to spring planting dates with the intention of developing a growth model for growers.

    A field trial was conducted in 2005 on these crops to study their phenology after planting on 25 Feb, 22 Mar, 8 Apr, 26 Apr, and 6 May. Each was grown in replicated, randomized plots measuring 4.6 m long by four rows spaced 0.3 m apart. Phenology measurements of developmental stages were taken periodically. For brown mustard, canola, and camelina, the first date in late February had the longest emergence interval, and except for canola, the lowest stand. Canopy height was not affected. Flowering for these crops occurred earlier with the earliest date and occurred later as the planting date was delayed. However, the maturity date was the same regardless of planting except for camelina, which matured earlier with earlier planting. Bird damage occurred in brown mustard and was greatest with the earliest planting and least with the last planting. Yield was lowest with the first planting date. For brown mustard and canola, yield was highest in the later planting dates, but for camelina yield was highest with the late March and earlier April dates that averaged over all three crops gave the best yields.

    On 6 May, additional plots were seeded to obtain growth data from sampled plants. Four to six plants were removed after 4, 6, 9, and 12 weeks after planting (WAP), and their length as well as the weights of plant parts were taken. For all crops, canopy height and width peaked 8 WAP and 9 WAP, respectively. Stem length continued increasing to 12 WAP, just before harvest, reaching lengths of 169, 185, and 115 cm for brown mustard, canola and camelina, respectively. From 4 to 9 WAP, fresh weight accumulated 1.9, 4.5, and 0.8 g/wk for brown mustard, canola, and camelina, respectively. At 9 WAP, fresh and dry weights were shifting from vegetative to reproductive structures, and between 9 and 12 WAP, pods were increasing in dry matter, whereas stem dry matter was decreasing.

    These trials were repeated in 2006 and the accumulated data will be used to develop a model to predict growth and development patterns of brown mustard, canola, and camelina for biofuel production in the High Plains. Related date-of-planting studies are being conducted in other states in this region.

Rogers E. Harry-O’kuru

New Crops and Processing Technology Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research,

USDA-ARS, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA

    Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia L) is an invasive weed species especially of soybean and other field crops in the southeastern United States. The seed contains a small amount (5-7%) of a highly colored fat as well as anthraquinones, proteins, and galactomannan polysaccharides. The character of sicklepod seed oil is such that a small amount of the weed seed present in a soybean crush lowers the quality of the soybean oil. Although cultivation of "Round-up-ready soybeans" mitigates infestation of the crop by sicklepod, the latter is so prolific that even volunteer stands yield >1000 lb of seed per acre. The right thing to do under this circumstance is to tap the potential of this weed as an alternative crop in the affected region.

    In earlier laboratory-scale work, we have shown the feasibility of separating the different components of sicklepod seed. At the kilogram-level and higher processing quantities, however, exigencies have arisen leading to modification of the approach in order to separate effectively components of the defatted seed meal. In one version for cleanly separating the proteins, the dried petroleum ether defatted meal was extracted with 0.5 M NaCl solution to remove albumins and globulins; then with 80% ethanol, prolamins were extracted from the pellet from the salt extraction. Glutelins were removed from the residual solids with 0.1 N alkali leaving the polysaccharides. In a simpler (pilot-scale) version for the polysaccharides, several kilograms of the dried defatted meal were stirred into deionized (DI) water for 30 to 40 min, and then pumped into the centrifuge. The resulting centrifugate (supernatant) was removed and stored. The residual cake was resuspended in an equal volume of DI water as described and centrifuged again. The pooled supernatants were heated to 92°C (15-20 min), filtered, cooled to room temperature, and passed through a column of Amberlyte to obtain the polysaccharides after freeze-drying or spray-drying the eluate solution.

M.A. Foster¹, D.A. Dierig², and M.J. Wintermeyer²

¹Texas A&M University Agricultural Research Station, Pecos, TX 79772, USA

²USDA-ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ 85239, USA

    Several herbicides are registered under Special Local Needs (24c) [SLN] in Arizona and Texas for weed control in lesquerella. Trifluralin provides adequate preemergence control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds, fluazifop controls annual and perennial grass weeds postemergence, and oxyfluorfen is used for postemergence control of annual broadleaf weeds. This program has worked well in establishing large blocks of lesquerella, but the postemergence control of broadleaf weeds is still a major concern. Treatments that offer a broader spectrum of control, and that are more cost effective than oxyfluorfen are needed. The objective of this research was to determine the tolerance of lesquerella seedlings to alternative postemergence herbicides versus the SLN treatment: oxyfluorfen (0.6 kg ai/ha).

    Our study was initiated 20 October 2005 at the University of Arizona Maricopa Agricultural Center, Maricopa, Arizona. Trifluralin (1.1 kg ai/ha) was applied preplant on an 8 ha block, and advanced generation lesquerella seed was planted on level basins with a Brillion seeder at 11 kg/ha and border irrigated. Herbicide treatments consisted of plots (6 m long and 3 m wide) arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The following postemergence herbicide treatments were applied at 1/2x, 1x, and 2x rates on 5 December 2005 when the lesquerella seedlings were in the 4 to 6 true leaf stage: benoxacor (2.0, 3.0, 4.0 kg ai/ha); clopyralid (0.30, 0.60, 1.10 kg ai/ha); dicamba (0.07, 0.20, 0.30 kg ai/ha); oxyfluorfen (0.30, 0.60, 1.10 kg ai/ha); oxyfluorfen+clopyralid (0.20+0.20, 0.30+0.30, 0.60+0.60 kg ai/ha); and pyrithiobac (0.03, 0.07, 0.12 kg ai/ha). The treatments were applied using a CO²-powered backpack sprayer with a four-nozzle boom (Teejet 8004 flat fan nozzles) delivering 225 L/ha at 187 kPa. Lesquerella seedling density was determined before spraying in each plot by counting the seedlings in a 0.25 m² quadrat. Counts were made weekly for 90 days and plant mortality was determined by the percentage change in seedling numbers. Seed production was measured in June 2006 by harvesting a 6 m by 2 m strip in each treatment with a Hege 180 combine.

    Plant mortality was 100% in all pyrithiobac treatments. Mortality was only 3% in the 1x oxyfluorfen plots and 0% in the cloypralid and oxyfluorfen+clopyralid treatments, respectively. Seed production was greatest in the 1x treatments of oxyfluorfen (1,187 kg/ha), clopyralid (1,160 kg/ha), and oxyfluorfen+cloypyralid (1,195 kg/ha) treatments. The 1x oxyfluorfen treatment would cost $56/ha, versus $98 and $77/ha for the 1x clopyralid and oxyfluorfen+clopyralid treatments, respectively. Oxyfluorfen is still the leading postemergence treatment for weed control in lesquerella.

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Specialty Crop Initiative

    An important aspect of National Program Leadership at ARS is looking ahead, trying to anticipate the problems of U.S. agriculture, especially those involving the commodities we represent. The challenge is to develop research programs that address those needs and solve them in a timely manner; and work with stakeholders to enhance economic opportunities for producers. The process for building a successful research Initiative is similar for New Crops or any other commodity, regardless of the issue. The strongest framework always is based on strategic plans developed with stakeholder input, and implemented as an integrated research approach, where scientists with different expertise and ability are asked to work together and meld their individual contributions to achieve a common goal. This system enables realization of desired outputs of the work much faster, but as with the development of any new technology, the most difficult accomplishment of all is moving that technology to market. A lot good research never gets used because there is no easy way to bridge the gap between R&D and commercialization.

POSTER PRESENTATIONS (Herbs, Botanicals, Medicinals, Fruits, and Vegetables)

M.T. Berti¹, B.L. Johnson¹, S. Dash¹, S. Fischer², F. Hevia², and A. Villar²

¹Campus Puebla, Colegio de Postgraduados, Puebla, Pue. Mexico C.P. 72760

² Plant Introduction Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA

³Vegetable Crops Research Unit, USDA-ARS, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA

⁴Seed Science Center, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA

⁵Department of Statistics, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA

¹New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

² Joosan Scholarship Foundation (2005), Wonkwang University, Chunbuk 570-749, Korea

³Rutgers Cooperative Extension Service, New Jersey Agriculture Experiment Station, Cook College, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.

⁴Department of Plant, Soil and Insect Sciences, Stockbridge Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

J.E. Simon¹, R. Juliani¹, D. Acquaye², E. Jefthas³, J. Asante-Dartey², N. Hitimana⁴,

M. Diatta⁵, B. Diouf⁵, P. Langenhoven³, Pierre Tannous¹, Erica Renaud⁶, Angel Daka⁷,

Hisham Moharram⁸, Jacky Goliath³, Ramu Govindasamy⁹, Jerry Brown¹⁰, and Carol Wilson¹¹

¹New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA

²Department of Plant, Soil and Insect Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

³ASNAPP-Senegal in concert with AES, Dakar, Senegal

⁴ASNAPP-Ghana; ⁵Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) ⁶BIONEXX, Antananarivo, Madagascar

⁷BioResources International-Nsawam

⁸USDA-ARS/AFSRC, 1224 Airport Rd., Beaver, WV, USA

⁹1- CPQBA-UNICAMP, C.P.6171 CEP: 13081-970 Campinas-SP, Brasil

¹⁰ASNAPP-Rwanda, ¹¹ASNAPP-Zambia ,¹²ASNAPP-South Africa

¹³Agricultural Economics and Marketing and the Food Policy Institute, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

F. Bavec, S. Grobelnik Mlakar, Č. Rozman, and M. Bavec

University of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture, Vrbanska 30, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia

    Consumer’s demands, especially in developed countries, are for healthy food with high nutritional value. It might be a new challenge for small-scale and part-time farmers to develop a new market niche, assuming that farmers are convinced of the food benefits and have knowledge about organic crop management. In the case of limited knowledge about organic production of oil (seed) pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo L. group Pepo) and potential use of their healthy and nutritional products, the aim of this contribution is to present arguments and possibilities about how to increase their production, use, and marketing.

    Based on research, case studies, personal experience in organic farming, professional and scientific literature, we want to provide farmers, advisers, and teachers an extensive overview of the production system and the main characteristics of the products, as a base for successful decision and eventual development of this target niche for marketing.

    To take into consideration growth conditions for the family Cucurbitaceae, there are little important differences between the conventional and organic production of oilseed pumpkins, except for weed and disease suppression. Weed suppression under organic production system should be based on good crop rotation, and mechanical and manual weeding. An alternative to avoid diseases is to use organically grown seedlings instead of traditional sowing. Appropriate plant population and available nitrogen in the soil have an important influence on the quantity and quality of fruits and seeds. Additional quality of organically grown certified seeds, oil, and other products is in their use in traditional (seeds are fumigate for the stomach and therapy for prostate gland, …) and official medicine (due to its antioxidative compounds, which help improve the life quality of patients suffering from benign prostate hyperplasia, patients with HIV/AIDS, influence on hormone regulation, etc.)

    Nutritional value of the oil is also very high. Depending on the process of pressing, the oil could be cold pressed or pressed after thermal procedure, which affects the oil’s special taste and color. The preceding facts, clear inputs of production, selling prices, and consumer requests have to be taken into account by producers for further decisions. As a support for decision about production of oil pumpkins and additional marketing, a multi-criteria model for decision on organic farms developed at the University of Maribor should be helpful.

    The discussions presented about the oil from the seed of pumpkin and the possibilities for its organic production and benefits of their products with healthy and rich nutritional compounds might be a new niche crop for farmers.

Chengci Chen¹, Ye Chen², Ratna Sharma-Shivappa², Dave Wichman¹, and Duane Johnson¹

¹Montana State University, Moccasin, MT 59462, USA

²North Carolina State University, NC, USA

    Corn grain is currently the major feedstock for fuel ethanol production in the United States. However, little corn grain is produced in Montana due to its cool climate and short growing season. An alternative feedstock, therefore, must be explored for potential fuel ethanol production. There is an abundant, but underutilized supply of agricultural residues and herbaceous grasses available in Montana. In this project, we plan to (1) develop production systems to maximize biomass yield, and (2) evaluate annual cereal hay and straw as well as warm season grasses for potential fuel ethanol feedstock and livestock feed.

    A double-cropping system was developed, where winter triticale was planted in the fall and harvested in mid-June for hay or silage followed by sweet sorghum or sweet stem pearl millet planted immediately into the field for a second harvest in late September. Enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation were conducted for chemical pretreated and ensiled wheat, barley, and triticale straws, and barley, triticale, pearl millet, and sweet sorghum hays. The qualities of the hay and silage feedstocks were also measured for animal feed.

    The double-cropping system developed in this study produced 47 to 56% more total biomass than planting winter triticale alone as single cropping for grain and straw. Enzymatic hydrolysis of chemically pretreated (2.0% NaOH or H₂SO₄) solids was conducted with Celluclast 1.5 L-cellubiase and Spezyme® CP- xylanase enzyme combinations. The glucan and xylan conversions during hydrolysis were 78 to 100% and 74 to 85%, respectively. The ethanol yield after fermentation of the hydrolysate from different feedstocks with Saccharomyces cerevisiae ranged from 0.27 to 0.34 g/g glucose or 52 to 66% of the theoretical maximum ethanol yield. The overall sugar conversion was 18 to 59% (drymass basis) for ensiled feedstocks. The ethanol yield from the ensiled feedstocks tested ranged from 0.21 to 0.28 g/g (reduced sugar basis) or 40.1 to 54.9% of the theoretical maximum ethanol yield. Quality test shows that winter triticale, sweet sorghum, and sweet stem pearl millet hays have very good relative feed value (>91%). The hays have 32 to 35% ADF, 59 to 65% NDF, and 12 to 19% protein content.

    In conclusion, biofuel feedstock production may be integrated with existing livestock production systems in Montana and multi-product crops evaluated in this study may be used both for biofuel feedstock and livestock feed.

D. Jasso de Rodríguez¹, R. Rodríguez-García¹, J.A. Villarreal-Quintanilla¹, J.L. Angulo-Sánchez², and E. Saucedo-Salazar²

1Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25315, México

²Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25253, México

    At present, the research development on green biomass have led to programs for developing large scale production (units and equipment) for maximum exploitation in more than 70 countries around the world. Obtaining foliar protein could contribute to solve the protein deficit for animal nutritional feeding. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinua Willd) is a pseudocereal that is tolerant to drought and frost that has potential use as human food and forage crop because the grain, stem, and leaf have high protein content and adequate amino acid composition.

    The objectives of this study were to determine the optimum harvest time of quinoa in order to obtain foliar protein concentrates, and its respective quality evaluations.

    Quinoa var. Chucara was sown in early June on the University experimental field under a randomized block design with eight replications. Treatments consisted of six cuttings at 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 weeks after seeding. The cuttings were done manually at 5 cm above soil level. From this material, samples (1.25 kg) of whole plants (leaf and stem) were taken and subsamples of five plants were subjected to observation on the crystals (salts) occurring on the upper and lower leaf surfaces, and stem with the optical microscope in reflected light at 50X, to determine the size and density of the crystals.

    The plants (1 kg) were separated into leaf and stem, and cut into 1 to 3 cm pieces. This material was blended two times (10 s each) in a food blender with distilled water in a 1:1 proportion. The material blended was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 30 min to separate the fibrous residues from the green protein juice. The latter was coagulated by precipitation with an acid (1 M HCl, pH 4.5) and heat (85°C for 5 min). The precipitate was washed with acidified water and separated by centrifugation (6000 rpm for 30 min). The concentrate and residues were then dried in an oven at 60°C for 72 h. At all steps of the process (leaf, stem, residues, and concentrate), samples were taken and the dry matter, nitrogen, crude fiber, ash, calcium, and phosphorus were determined.

    Crystals (salts) were present on the lower leaf surface at the 4th and 5th cutting. The chemical analyses will be presented.

B.L. Johnson and P.J. Petersen

Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, ND 58105, USA

    Production of winter annual crops can benefit on farm workload distribution, alter pest management, and produce potentially greater yields than spring-grown crops of the same type.

    The objective of this study was to determine the performance of winter pea (Pisum sativum L.) cultivars grown in North Dakota.

The experiment was conducted in eastern North Dakota near Prosper during the 2005 and 2006 growing seasons. The previous crop was hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) each year of the study with the winter peas seeded into the standing wheat stubble that was approximately 20 to 25 cm tall. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with eight winter pea cultivars sown in mid to late September, and one spring check cultivar sown in early to mid May. Seeds were sown to establish 741,000 plants ha-1 in plots consisting of 6 rows spaced 30 cm apart and 7.6 m long. Characteristics evaluated were fall stand, winter survival, spring stand, flowering date, plant height and lodging, seed yield, and seed weight.

    Winter survival was influenced by wheat stubble erectness, snow cover, and air temperature during the dormant winter period. Cultivar winter survival ranged from 15 to 45% and 80 to 95% in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The onset of flowering was approximately three weeks earlier for the winter varieties than the spring check variety for each year of the study. Yield performance was affected by the level and uniformity of spring stands. Yields of the winter cultivars ranged from 25 to 50% of the spring check variety in 2005. Harvest of the winter varieties was 10 to 14 d earlier than the spring check variety for each year of the study.

    Results provide the first information regarding winter pea performance in North Dakota and although encouraging indicate further improvement in variety winter hardiness and a definition of best management practices is necessary before engaging in commercial production.

D.L. Johnson¹ and David Sands²

¹Montana State University, Dept. of Research Centers, Kalispell, MT 59901, USA

²Montana State University, Dept. of Plant Science and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA

    Celiac disease is the inability for a person to digest gluten. Consequently, glutinous proteins build up on the intestinal lining, limiting absorption of food. The results vary in degrees from mild indigestion and flatulence to starvation and eventual death. In 2001, an estimated one person per 15,000 was considered gluten intolerant. Definitive evaluations required intestinal biopsy tests. Today, with improved technologies in DNA analysis, the estimate of gluten intolerance is closer to one person per 1,500, an order of magnitude less than predicted five years ago.

    Cereals that contain gluten (wheat) and rye or related proteins such as the hordeins of barley are not useable by celiacs. Thus, cereal consumption has been limited to corn and rice. Western diets typically rely on more substantial cereals for breads, dry cereals, crackers, and cookie-type products. The challenge was to identify new cereals that meet standards for being "gluten-free" yet make acceptable products for consumers.

    The gluten-free project at Montana State University initially focused on Indian ricegrass as a gluten-free cereal. Indian ricegrass, Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer and J.A. Schultes) Barkworth was acceptable, but it has a strong, rye-like flavor and is difficult to clean due to the presence of a pubescence on the seed coat. Test weights are 232 kg/m3 (18 lb/bu) and a seed count of 360 seed/g (161,920 seed/lb). This potentially leads to contamination by glutinous cereals undetectable after cleaning and dehulling. A second source of gluten-free cereal is timothy, Phleum pratense L., another long-lived perennial with a test weight of 580 kg/m3 (45 lb/bu) and a seed count of 2,710 seed/g (1,230,000 seed/lb). Timothy seed while small is relatively dense and can be milled without seed coat removal. Timothy flour has a flavor similar to wheat. A third crop being developed is hulless oat, Avena sativa L., with a test weight of 750 kg/m3 (58 lb/bu). Oats represent an annual cereal alternative.

    Product development for these cereals has involved evaluation and development of breads, cookies, pastas, and dry cereals. Product from Indian ricegrass includes only bread, as other products were judged unacceptable. Timothy has provided multi-purpose flour suitable for breads, cookies, dry cereals, and pastas. Oats have been limited to bread flours, noodles, cookies, and dry cereals.

    The variety of gluten-free cereals that can be substituted for common cereals is substantial. The use of the more common cereal-like grains such as oats and timothy has allowed producer flexibility, better return to the farm gate, and variety for consumers desiring commonly available foods.

D. Ray Langham

Sesaco Corporation, 4308 Centergate, San Antonio, TX 78217, USA

    Although there are many descriptions of the morphology of sesame, there is no description of the phenology. Understanding the phenology allows farmers to anticipate farming practices in order to perform them in a timely manner. In developing crop insurance products, it is necessary to have a description on how the crop develops in order to define when and how the seed is produced.

    The objective of this paper is to provide an initial description of the phenology of sesame.

    This phenology is based on observations over 30 years on over 30,000 lines and 31 varieties of sesame under nursery conditions and commercial fields in Arizona, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Oklahoma, Venezuela, and India. The lines are introductions from all over the world and crosses between those lines. The conditions have varied from irrigated to semi-irrigated to rainfed; from torrential rains to drought; from low inputs to high inputs; from early to late plantings; from sea level to over 1,000 meters elevation; after very high winds, light to heavy hail, frosts, hard freezes, and snows. The emphasis on this paper is on U.S. commercial varieties.

    The phenology has been divided into the following four stages: (1) vegetative (until 50% of the plants have open flowers), (2) reproductive (until 90% of the plants have stopped flowering), (3) ripening (until physiological maturity), and (4) drying (until the crop is ready for combining). Three of the stages have been divided into phases. Because sesame has indeterminate flowering, technically the reproductive, ripening, and drying stages overlap from the bottom of the plant to the top. The sequence of the stages is the same in all conditions, but the length of the stages is affected by moisture, fertility, temperature, light, and daylength.

    This paper provides a starting point to compare U.S. commercial sesame with the rest of the world. Just as Ashri’s determinate mutant has affected the phenology of sesame, it is anticipated that mutations and other farming practices will provide eventual additions to this basic phenological description.

INFLUENCE OF SOURCES AND LEVELS OF K FERTILIZERS ON SUGARCANE CROP IN SALINE SOIL CONDITIONS

V.S. Mali¹, R.L. Joshi¹, N.A. Zende¹, and S.K. Bansal²

¹Vasantdada Sugar Institute Manjari(Bk.), Pune, M.S. 412307, India

²Potash Research Institute of India, Sector – 19 , Dundahera, Gurgaon, Haryana, India

    In many regions of the World, soil salinization is a serious problem for agricultural practices. Anthropogenic salinization induced by improper water and fertilizer use results into the deterioration of soil properties, hinders plant germination and growth, thereby causing reduction in crop yield.

    In this respect, a field experiment was conducted to study the effect of K fertilizer sources and levels on sugarcane crop in saline soil conditions.

    Six treatments consisted of 175, 200, and 225 kg K₂O /ha as muriate of potash (MOP) and sulphate of potash (SOP) each was replicated three times in a Factorial Randomized Block Design (FRBD). Urea (340 kg N/ha) and SSP (170 kg P₂O₅ /ha) were common for all treatments. FYM at 10 MT/ha was spread before planting. The sugarcane variety Co86032 was planted at preseason of the years 2003, 2004, and 2005 at the Vasantdada Sugar Institute, Pune, India.

The pooled data obtained after subsequent three years (2003-04, 2004-05, and 2005-06) field study revealed that significantly higher cane yield, sugar yield, CCS %, germination percent, tiller ratio, plant population, and millable height of cane were obtained with the treatment where 225 kg K₂O/ha was applied as SOP followed by 225 kg K₂O/ha applied as MOP fertilizer. A decrease in pH and ESP as well as maximum sulphur percent in leaf and sulphite content (ppm) in juice was present in the SOP-treated plots. The K contents both in the soil and leaf increased at the higher (225 kg K20/ha).

    Overall, the study on soil, leaf, and juice suggests that sugarcane crop responded to the higher levels of K fertilizers and the sulphate form of K fertilizer (SOP) has an advantage over the chloride form of potassium fertilizer (MOP) in saline soil conditions in the sugarcane-growing region in Maharashtra, India.

AR. Muthiah¹, J.G. Manjaya², and T.S. Raveendran¹

¹Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -641 003, India

²Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, India

    Soybean (Glycine max L.) is gaining importance in recent years as a new crop in the southern part of India. The cultivation of the crop is constrained by inadequate moisture availability during the spring and/or summer season, especially at the pod initiation and pod filling stage. Evolution of drought tolerant cultivars through hybridization is tedious because of the very fragile and small sized chasmogamous and cleistogamous flowers of soybean. Moreover, only a very narrow genetic base is available in the germplasm of soybean maintained in India. Hence, an attempt was made to irradiate the soybean seeds of the Cv. JS 335 and CO (Soy 3) with gamma rays and ethyl methane sulphonate (EMS) to induce heritable variability for drought tolerance.

    The seeds of these cultivars were irradiated with gamma rays 250 GY dose, EMS with a concentration of 0.2 and 0.4%, combinations of 100 GY + 0.2% EMS, and 100 GY + 0.4% EMS. The source used for gamma irradiation was Cobalt 60, available at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam, India.

    Single plant M2 segregants were observed with different root densities, leaf thickness with higher grain yield, under imposed drought stress conditions compared with the parental check cultivars. Macro mutants viz., dwarf, mutants with lancelet leaflets, small leaf, tall and tiny mutants with broader leaves were observed.

In the 250 GY gamma irradiation, a higher yielding M2 segregating plant, with higher root density and with heavier 100 grain weight was selected to study its progeny in the M3 generation. Similarly, in the combination treatments of 100 GY + 0.2% and 100 GY + 0.4% EMS, higher yielding plants with thicker leaves and higher root densities were also observed, which are potential sources for the development heritable drought tolerance in future generations.

    It is possible to isolate in future generations, true breeding plants from the mutant selections with higher yield potential that can tolerate moisture stress.

Ryan Thelemann¹, G.A. Johnson¹, C.C. Sheaffer¹, H.G. Jung², U. Tschirner³, D.L. Wyse¹, and D.A. Current⁴

¹Dept. Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA

²Plant Science Unit, USDA-ARS, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA

³Dept. Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA

⁴Dept. of Forest Resources and CINRAM, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA

    Biomass crops have the potential to produce a variety of products for use in the expanding bioeconomy. Numerous perennial plant species have been identified to serve as dedicated and custom-tailored feedstocks for the production of bioenergy and bioproducts, while also providing numerous positive environmental quality benefits. However, no single species is adapted to all of the diverse soil environments found within a typical production field. We propose a new strategy that optimizes the placement of energy crops on the landscape to promote economic growth, ecological and enterprise diversification, and improve environmental quality. The objective of this study is to determine differences in plant growth and development between a diverse set of plant species as a function of landscape position and to understand the relationship between plant growth and environment.

    Field experiments are being conducted at the Agricultural Ecology Research Farm (AERF) at the University of Minnesota Southern Research and the Outreach Center in Waseca, MN. Seven landscape positions were identified based on a detailed terrain analysis of the site. These seven landscape positions encompass a range of terrain features including depositional, summit, flat, and hillslope areas. Hillslope areas were further delineated based on slope and aspect. Eight industrial crops were established within each landscape position. Crops included alfalfa, willow, poplar, cottonwood, false indigo, switchgrass, corn, and a polyculture. Plant growth and development data were collected over time in each landscape position. Soil physical/chemical characteristics and weather data were also obtained.

Preliminary results show significant differences in plant growth and development between species within a landscape position as well as differences in individual species growth between landscape positions. From this data set, we can begin formulating a strategy for designing perennial-based cropping systems that optimize eco-industrial systems to produce renewable energy and biobased products.

Cuphea was grown in field trials at Prosper, North Dakota in 2005 and 2006 to determine a growth staging system. Cuphea was sown at 21 kg ha-1 in mid to late May at a 13 mm seeding depth in rows spaced 30 cm apart. Visual descriptions of growth and development were recorded during the growing season from emergence to harvest. Cuphea exhibited an active hypocotyl emergence and required 115 to 168 GDD to reach 50% emergence. Cuphea vegetative stages are associated with the development of the main stem and begin with emergence of the cotyledons followed by leaf development beginning at the second node and progressing upward as the stem elongates. Vegetative stages from V2 to Vn were determined by counting the number of nodes on the main stem that have fully expanded leaves. Generally, cuphea plants initiate reproductive growth between stages V9 to V12, i.e., 9 to 12 nodes with leaf development on the main stem.

S.C. Cermak, T.A. Isbell, A.B. Deppe, B.A. Lowery, and K.B. Brandon

New Crops and Processing Technology Research Unit, USDA-ARS-NCAUR, Peoria, IL 61604, USA

    Lesquerella fendleri is a member of the Brassicaceae (mustard) family. Lesquerella is a winter annual seed oil crop native to the desert southwestern United States and is currently undergoing an intensive research effort for its successful introduction into agriculture. Lesquerella produces a small seed that has 25 to 30% oil that contains 55 to 64% hydroxy fatty acid. The hydroxy fatty acids of lesquerella are lesquerolic (55–60%, 14- hydroxy-cis-11-eicosenoic acid) and auricolic (2–4%, 14- hydroxy-cis-11-cis-17-eicosenoic acid). The distribution of TG is 10% nonhydroxy acyl, 15% monohydroxyacyl, and 73% dihydroxyacyl, which indicate that lesquerella oil is essentially a difunctional triglyceride in terms of hydroxy functionalities.

    The objective of this study was to develop industrial products with lesquerella oil or fatty acids as a starting material. In the past, estolides have been used to develop new products from new industrial crops. Estolides from lesquerella have been synthesized with two different methods either 200oC from the fatty acid or 130oC using a tin catalyst from the fatty acid or the triglyceride.

    Estolides derived from lesquerella and castor 2-ethylhexyl esters with different saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were synthesized. These fatty acid estolides produced a series of functional fluids with excellent cold temperature properties having pour points < -53oC. In addition, the triglyceride estolides were synthesized from the hydroxy moieties of lesquerella and castor oils with oleic and saturated fatty acids. These triglyceride estolides also produced a series of functional fluids with excellent cold temperature properties having pour points < -36oC. These estolides went through further chemical modifications to produce a new potential industrial fluid.

    Many new and useful products and applications have been developed for lesquerella oil and fatty acids.

R.L. Evangelista and L.K. Manthey

New Crops and Processing Technology Research Unit, USDA-ARS-NCAUR, 1815 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA

    Several Cuphea species of the family Lythraceae have been identified to contain high amounts of saturated medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs). MCFAs (C8:0-C12:0) are used in soaps, detergent, cosmetics, lubricants, and food applications. Cuphea PSR23 is a hybrid between C. viscosissima Jacq.(a species native to the United States) and C. lanceolata W.T. Aiton (a species native to Mexico). Cuphea PSR23 has been the subject of field studies for the past six years in west central Minnesota and central Illinois to establish the best agronomic management practices in preparation for its commercial production. Currently, the seeds are processed mainly for oil to support research needs, as well as for product development and testing. There are very limited published reports on the physical properties and chemical composition of Cuphea PSR23 oil available at this time. This paper will provide some of these basic information that may be useful in its handling and processing.

    The Cuphea PSR23 seeds used in this study were from the 2003 and 2004 harvests from plots in central Illinois. The crude oil was obtained from pilot-scale full pressing studies conducted in our laboratory. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil was produced by chemical refining process. The physical properties and chemical composition of the oils were analyzed following the AOCS official methods.

    The bulk seeds contained 27% (db) crude oil. The typical fatty acid distribution is as follows: 69.6% capric, 2.9% lauric, 4.4% myristic, 5.9 palmitic, 9.4% oleic, and 4.8% linoleic acids. Its iodine value of 19.7 and the oxidative stability index of 157 h at 110oC are comparable to those of coconut oil. The crude oil has high free fatty acid (4.0-4.25%) and chlorophyll (200-260 ppm) contents. Phosphatides are also low as indicated by its P, Ca, and Mg contents of 170, 46, and 74 ppm, respectively. The saponification number ranged from 200 to 260 with an unsaponifiable matter of 1%.

P.K. Gilbertson¹, B.L. Johnson¹, M.T. Berti¹, and M.A. Halvorson²

¹Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, ND 58105, USA

²Minot North Central Research Extension Center, Minot, ND, USA

    As North Dakota and other regional producers seek to diversify with the addition of new crops, there is a need to evaluate the most effective production methods for these crops in these areas.

    During the 2005 growing season, an agronomic study was conducted at the Prosper, ND research station to evaluate the effect of seeding date on crop performance.

    The study was a randomized complete block design in a split plot arrangement, with seeding date the main plot and crop the subplot. Crops were sown in late May/early June and mid June. Crops evaluated included borage (Borago officinalis L.), camelina (Camelina sativa L.), crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst.), cuphea (Cuphea spp. L.), evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.), high erucic rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), and soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.).        Characteristics evaluated included stand, days to 50% flowering, plant height and lodging, seed oil content, seed oil composition, and seed yield.

    The seeding date by crop interaction for seed yield indicated greater yield at the earlier seeding date for soybean and cuphea. Crambe and borage seed yields were not affected by seeding date. In camelina, the later seeding date produced a greater yield than the earlier date. Seeding date did not affect seed oil content or oil composition for any of the crops.

    For many oilseed crops, it could be expected that earlier planting dates would produce greater yield due to cooler weather during reproductive development. Only cuphea had a significant increase in yield. Further research is necessary to determine the optimum planting date so that producers can be well prepared to introduce new crops into commercial production.

D. Jasso de Rodríguez¹, R. Rodríguez-García¹, H. Díaz-Solís¹, and J.L. Angulo-Sánchez²

¹Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25315, México

²Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25253, México

    Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L) is an oilseed crop for human consumption because it has high oil content with excellent quality. In Mexico, sunflower production is small, and in 2003, 152,000 ton of grain and 50,000 ton of crude oil were imported. In the arid and semiarid zones of northern Mexico, sunflower is an alternative crop for growers.

    In the present work, two sunflower varieties SAN-3C and SANE 23578 were evaluated during nine cycles in the period from 1991 to 1998 in order to analyze the crop response by different environmental conditions in the semiarid zones of northern Mexico, looking for possible commercial cultivation.

Sowing was carried out from May to July during 1991 to 1998 on the University experimental field at Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila. The distance between rows was 0.8 m and between plants 0.25 m and the plant density was 50,000 plant ha-1. The variables evaluated were: dry matter yield (total and by component), grain yield, oil and protein contents. The environmental variables were: air mean temperature (GDD), rainfall, and evaporation. The data were analyzed by factor analyses.

The variety SAN-3C had the highest grain and dry matter yields and oil content. The factor analyses presented an inverse relation between crop year and dry matter yield. The effect of the environmental variables was more exact for grain yield than for dry matter yield.

M.M. Jenderek¹, D.A. Dierig², and G. Dahlquist²

¹NALPGRU, USDA-ARS, 9611 S. Riverbend, Parlier, CA 93648, USA

²U.S. ALARC, USDA-ARS, 21881 N. Cardon Lane, Maricopa, AZ 85239, USA

    Lesquerella (Brassicaceae) species are native to North America and many of them occur in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The habitat of most of the Lesquerella species is located in the arid and semiarid areas with low annual rainfall ranging from 250 to 400 mm. Seeds of lesquerella contain an oil rich in hydroxy fatty acids (HFA), which are the raw material for producing coatings, corrosion inhibitors, cosmetics, lubricants, nylons, plastics, resins, and waxes. The predominant HFA of the oil, lesquerolic acid, is similar to the ricinoleic acid in castor beans. Thus, lesquerolic acid may replace or reduce the import of castor oil ($24 to $43 million), which is classified as strategic material.

    The objective of this study was to evaluate the total oil content in seeds and the oil yielding potential for selected accessions of the USDA, National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) lesquerella germplasm collection. The total oil concentration was evaluated in seeds of over 160 accessions (12 species) using a pulsed NMR.

    The highest total oil content was measured in seeds of L. grandiflora (27.2%) followed by L. lasiocarpa (26.4%), and L. rectipes (24.3%). The range of the total oil in the seeds of the five L. grandiflora accessions was from 25.2 (PI 293034) to 28.7% (W6 20835 and W6 20836). The lowest oil content was in accessions L. ovalifolia (10.6%) and L. angustifolia (11.8%). By accounting for the seed yield and the total oil concentration, the highest oil producing potential was observed for accessions of L. lasiocarpa (1,665 kg/ha) followed by the L. grandiflora accessions (1,523 kg/ha). Among the accessions of the 2 species, the highest oil yielding potential was observed for PARL 172, L. lasiocarpa (2,632 kg/ha). Across all species, the highest oil yielding potential was present in PI 293030, L. gordonii (2,911 kg/ha). In L. fendleri, the PI 596363 (1,900 kg/ha) and PI 355037 (1,684 kg/ha) had the highest oil yielding potentials. The PI 596363 represents improved breeding material developed by USDA-ARS scientists, and the PI 355037 is a wild population collected in Texas, USA.

    The USDA Lesquerella germplasm collection has 201 accessions (33 species). In this number, 97% of accessions were evaluated for total oil content in seeds. These accessions were also characterized for several morphological characteristics (data may be found at www.ars-grin.gov ). The genetic resources of the Lesquerella collection are diverse and are an excellent source for cultivar development.

B.L. Johnson¹, M.T. Berti¹, and C.A. Bradley²

¹Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, ND, 58105, USA

²Department of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, ND, 58105, USA

    Cuphea (Cuphea viscosissima Jacq. x C. lanceolata f. silenoides W.T. Aiton, PSR23) is a new oilseed crop, with medium chain fatty acids, being developed for the North Central USA for industrial applications in the manufacture of soaps and detergents.

    Seed germination and seedling emergence of Cuphea is often low compared with commercialized crops where seed treatments are a common production practice. Identification of seed treatments to improve seedling emergence and stand establishment for Cuphea will be important for successful commercial production.

    The objective of this study was to determine the effect of five fungicide treatments on pure live seed emergence (PLSE) of Cuphea.

The experiment was conducted at Prosper, ND and Glyndon, MN in 2005 and 2006. Previous crops were wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.) at Prosper and Glyndon, respectively, for both years. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with six treatments and four replicates. Treatments were: no fungicide applied (check treatment), captan at 0.35 g a.i./kg seed, mefenoxam at 0.15 g a.i./kg seed, fludioxonil at 0.08 g a.i./kg seed + mefenoxam at 0.03 g a.i./kg seed, azoxystrobin at 0.02 g a.i./kg seed, and azoxystrobin at 0.02 g a.i./kg seed + mefenoxam at 0.15 g a.i./kg seed. Seeds were treated and planted three days later at a 12 mm depth. Plots consisted of six rows spaced 30 cm apart and 4.5 m in length.

    Pure live seed emergence was evaluated 10 d after seeding at all locations by counting emerged seedlings in each plot row and adjusting for germination.

The environment (location-year) by treatment interaction indicated significant treatment effects on PLSE only at Glyndon in 2006. At this environment the mefenoxam (81% PLSE) and mefenoxam + azoxystrobin (81% PLSE) treatments PLSE was greater than the check (22% PLSE). Other treatments PLSE did not differ from the check at this environment. Significant treatment differences for PLSE were not noted at the other three environments; however, there was a tendency for higher PLSE with the mefenoxam (49% PLSE) and azoxystrobin (42% PLSE) treatments than the check (21%) at the Glyndon 2005 environment.

A preliminary analysis of dying plants collected from the Glyndon site where sugarbeet was the previous crop indicated the presence of the pathogens Pythium and Rhizoctonia.

    Preliminary results suggest that seed treatment would be beneficial for commercial cuphea production when sugarbeet precedes Cuphea or crops prone to root diseases caused by Pythium and Rhizoctonia precede Cuphea in rotation.

S. Munoz-Valenzuela¹, D.L. Johnson², J. Salcido-Bastidas¹, H. Chaparro-Zazueta¹, and G. Gil-Soto¹

¹Instituto Tecnologico del Valle del Yaqui-ITVY, Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico

²Northwestern Agricultural Research Center, MSU, Kalispell, MT, USA

    Canola, Brassica sp, is a new crop in Mexico. It was commercially introduced to Northwest Mexico during the 1997 to 1998 winter season. Mexican producers are now growing various varieties, including the American IMC 204 and IMC 205 due to their high oleic acid content. The Hyola 401 Canadian hybrid has also been cultivated and it has shown the best results with regards to adaptation, agronomic response, oil quality, and grain yield. In addition, the National Research System is testing canola varieties from different world regions. Introduction and selection are the first steps in the breeding of genetic plants. In 2004, a set of canola genotypes, including open pollinated varieties, hybrids, and experimental lines were obtained from the Northwestern Agricultural Research Center , Montana State University, USA. Consequently, the objective of this study was to evaluate, characterize, and select a group of canola genotypes that could be introduced to the environmental conditions of Northwest Mexico.

    The research work was conducted in the Instituto Tecnologico Agropecuario (ITA) No. 21 during the winter-spring season of 2004 to 2005. ITA 21 (now ITVY) is located in Northwest Sonora, Mexico. Thirty-six canola genotypes were studied in four yield trials with nine entries and three local checks each. Materials were separated into four groups: (1) VARIETIES, (2) VISH, (3) VISC, and (4) CHN. The randomized complete blocks statistical design was used in each experiment with four replications. The germplasms were planted on 19 December 2004. Germination vigor, bloom, maturity, reaction to diseases, insect damage, lodging, plant height, grain density, oil content, and grain yield were measured.

    Significantly large differences were present among genotypes in each group, with variance coefficients of 10.6, 13.6, 9.5, and 10.6%, respectively, for the four groups. The Hyola 401 hybrid (Local Check) performed the best on each yield trial with 2931, 3408, 3439, and 3311 kg/ha, respectively. The best introduced genotypes in each group were: Hyola 357 (2085 kg/ha), VISH 033 (2463 kg/ha), VISC 00317 (1804 kg/ha), and CHN 503 (2148 kg/ha) on each test. Most of the lines showed some disarray in uniformity, perhaps due to the change of location. Thus, individual plant selections were made. Insect infestations were observed during the growth cycle with the aphid Myzus persicae present during bloom, and the false bug Nysius ericae in the mature pods.

    The Hyola 401 hybrid appears to be the best variety for Mexican conditions. However, it is recommended to continue with the establishment of the segregating nursery in order to improve the stability of the selected plants, and later, to check their potential in new yield trials.

S. Munoz-Valenzuela¹, G.L.C. Musa², L. Montoya-Coronado³, and V.M. Rivera-Rojas¹

¹Instituto Tecnologico del Valle del Yaqui-ITVY, Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico

²California Oils Corporation, Division Seeds, Woodland, CA, USA

³Campo Experimental del Sur de Sonora-INIFAP. Mexico

    Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L., is a major oil crop in Northwest Mexico. It has been cultivated in the Yaqui Valley, Sonora since 1960. The first introduced varieties were the "Saffola Group", of which "Saffola 208" performed the best. The "Gila" variety was important until 1985. In order to increase production yields and improve the oil content, quality, and to increase resistance to diseases, the Inifap Safflower Breeding Program developed varieties such as "Kino", "Sahuaripa", "Quiriego", "San Jose", "Bacum", "Sonora", "San Ignacio", and "Quilantan", among others. Safflower is susceptible to "leaf spot" caused by Alternaria carthami, and "safflower rust" caused by Puccinia carthami. Another new pathological problem has appeared in recent years. This is the "false mildew" caused by Ramularia carthami that has become the most important pathological problem in Northwest Mexico. This disease vulnerability can be solved through genetic breeding. The objective of this study was to evaluate the agronomic response, quality, diseases reaction, and yield of new safflower experimental lines.

The yield trial was conducted at the Instituto Tecnologico Agropecuario (ITA) No.21 during winter-spring season 2005. ITA 21 (now ITVY) is located in Northwest, Sonora, Mexico. The treatments consisted of 10 safflower genotypes and two local checks. The randomized complete blocks design was used with three replications. The plots were 1 m wide by 6 m long with two rows each. Seeds were planted on 12 February 2005. Germination vigor, bloom, maturity, diseases reaction, plants height, lodging, grain density, oil content, and yield were measured.

    Highly significant differences were present among genotypes with a variance coefficient of 8.12%. The grain yield varied from 3418 kg/ha in line 02-272Y0 to 2000 kg/ha in 04-765, with an average of 2830 kg/ha. Most of the genetic material showed standard values in agronomic behavior; the oil content ranged from 40.2% for S-518 to 34.7% for 04-765. Infection by the fungus Ramularia carthami was observed. The infection levels were variable among the lines. The most resistant experimental lines were 04-787 and 04-765, which only showed the presence of only traces of the disease. However, their grain yields were not the best.

The experimental safflower lines 04-787 and 04-765 exhibited resistance to the R. carthami fungus, the cause of the "false mildew" disease in Northwest Mexico. It is recommended to cross these germplasms with the high yield varieties and then select resistant plants with high grain yield and good agronomic characters from the progeny.

S. Munoz-Valenzuela¹, A.A. Ibarra-Lopez¹, L.M. Rubio-Silva², H. Valdez-Davila³, and J. Borboa-Flores⁴

1Instituto Tecnologico del Valle del Yaqui-ITVY, Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico

²Comercial Agricola & Industrial-CAIVYSA, Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico

³Molinos Union del Yaqui-CORP-MUYSA, Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico

⁴Universidad de Sonora-DIPA-UNISON, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

    The neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss, was introduced to Baja California Sur, Mexico, in 1997 by a group of private producers dedicated to organic horticulture in San José del Cabo. The first trees were brought from the Philippines. In 1992, neem was introduced to Northwest Mexico. It is used as a windbreak to protect crop fields, and for forestation in rural and urban areas. However, its main use is to produce biological insecticides and fungicides, as well as cosmetics and organic medical products. Neem populations have phenotypic and quality differences due to their genetic structure, nature crossing rate, and environmental action. The fruits are heterogeneous in size and form, but the oil content and quality are variable that result in unstable final products. The objective of this study was to evaluate and characterize qualitatively the morphology of 216 trees to establish any differences among the trees.

    This study was conducted at the Instituto Tecnológico Agropecuario (ITA) No.21 during 2004 to 2005. ITA 21 (now ITVY) is located in the Yaqui Valley in Southern Sonora, México. The neem nursery was planted in July 2000. It has 216 trees in a square plantation of 7x7 m. The trees were characterized and selected. Tree height, stem diameter, branching type, and leaf color were measured. Fruit size, weight, form, almond proportion, oil content, and fatty acid profiles were also determined.

    The trees evaluated have a high genetic variation identified by differences in height, branching type, leaf form, and color. Fruit form, size, weight, almond proportion, composition, and oil content were also variable. This is important in order to improve neem populations. Better fruits produce oils of higher quality and uniform plantations produce stable oils. Fruit weights were dissimilar for each tree. Fruit weights ranged from 0.775 g to 0.325 g. Fruit almond proportions were different. Tree #69 was registered at 31.9%, whereas tree #39 contained 21.1%, which corresponded to oil contents of 23.8% and 15.4%, respectively. The fatty acid profile analyses showed no differences. Most fatty acids had values of: Oleic Acid, 45.5%; Linoleic Acid, 16.8%; Palmitic Acid, 17.2%; Stearic Acid, 15.2%; and Linolenic Acid, 1.3%.

    The neem trees located in Southern Sonora, Mexico exhibit a significant variation in their morphology, mainly with respect to oil content. Further studies are recommended to focus on the oil content and composition as the principal asset of the tree.

R. Rodríguez-García¹, D. Jasso de Rodríguez¹, J.L. Angulo-Sánchez², and D.A. Dierig³

¹Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25315, México

²Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25253, México

³USDA-ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ 85239, USA

    Lesquerella fendleri (Gray) Wats, is a Brassicaceae native to northern Mexico and southern United States. The seeds contain oil similar to castor oil that may be used for a wide array of industrial crops. The Mexican growers in the semiarid lands have the potential to cultivate Lesquerella if the crop can be grown in the native regions.

    The objective of this study was to determine the effect of fertilization on seed yield and oil content in Lesquerella grown at Saltillo located in northern Mexico.

The seeds of Lesquerella fendleri line O1LO were sown on 19 October 2004. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied in October before the planting at 80 kg/ha, and in March (flowering stage) at 40 kg/ha. Phosphorus was applied at 60 kg/ha in one application in October and also before sowing. Irrigation was applied for germination and seedling establishment and to maintain seed moisture. The experimental design was a randomized block design with two treatments, with fertilization (T1) and without fertilization (T2) and five replications. Plant morphological variables as well as yield characteristics were measured and related to fertilizer application.

    Significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) were present between treatments for oil content and seed yield, and highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) between treatments for weight of 1000 seeds and dry weight. For phenotypic correlations among variables, a positive and significant correlation was found between oil content (r = 0.737*) and the weight of 1000 seeds.

    Lesquerella had a positive response to fertilization, showing increments in the variables studied.

A. M. Salywon¹ and D.A. Dierig¹

¹USDA-ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ 85239, USA

    The completion of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome sequence has been heralded as an unparalleled opportunity for crop improvement by establishing a detailed structure of reference genes that can be used for comparative genetic mapping with closely related species. However, the apparent problem remains on how to transfer the sequence and structural information to the crop of interest, especially for new crops where little or no sequence information exists and when there is no common set of molecular markers.

    As part of our breeding program for the new industrial oilseed crop Lesquerella fendleri, we are developing de novo microsatellite markers in order to characterize the genetic diversity of breeding lines and germplasm collections, and to develop genetic linkage maps for marker assisted selection for trait of interest such as oil quantity and quality. To date, microsatellite loci have rarely been used for cross-generic comparative studies because of the low transferability of the markers and the lack of conservation of microsatellite repeat motifs between species. The objective of this study was to determine whether the microsatellite loci isolated for L. fendleri might be homologous to Arabidopsis, and therefore, be of use for comparative mapping, with the goal of using a candidate gene approach for both simple and complex traits.

    We employed a BLASTN search of the Arabidopsis genome with the 40 L. fendleri microsatellite loci (microsatellite repeat and flanking regions) that we have isolated to date and identified the region where the repeat motif was located. Loci orthologous to Arabidopsis genes (based on their Expectation value) were then given that locus name in order to be mapped to the Arabidopsis genome using the Chromosome Map Tool (http://www.arabidopsis.org/jsp/

ChromosomeMap/tool.jsp).

    Eighty-eight percent (35 out of 40) of the microsatellite loci contained sequence that was orthologous to Arabidopsis; 18 could be assigned to known or proteins with hypothetical functions and the remaining 17 were orthologous to unknown proteins. When placed on the Arabidopsis Chromosome Map, the L. fendleri loci were distributed on all five chromosomes. Several loci show a close relationship with genes from the Arabidopsis Lipid Gene Database (http://www.plantbiology.msu.edu/lipids/genesurvey/ ), and are therefore, potentially very valuable for our understanding of the basic genetics and biology of lipid metabolism for agronomic improvement of this new crop. Sequence alignment of L. fendleri and Arabidopsis may also provide a means to develop highly conserved primers in the flaking regions that should have a higher probability of cross-species and generic amplification.

T.A. Coffelt and F.S. Nakayama

USDA-ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, Arizona 85239, USA

    A six-step protocol was developed to harvest from 1 kg to over 20 kg of plant material from field plots in a form suitable for laboratory analyses with minimal latex loss. Step 1 was to cut the plants in the field as close as possible to ground level ( 50 mm). Step 2 was to transport the plants from the field to the chipping area as soon as possible in bags that kept plant samples separate. Step 3 was to obtain a fresh weight for each sample. Step 4 was to process the sample through the chipper and obtain a fresh weight of the chipped material. Step 5 was to add antioxidant solution (0.2% sodium sulfite in distilled water at a pH of about 11) so that the fresh weight of plant material collected and the antioxidant solution are in a 1:1 ratio. Step 6 was to thoroughly mix the antioxidant solution with the plant material by stirring the plant material after the antioxidant solution was added. Steps 2 to 6 were done in less than 3 h following harvest to minimize latex loss. The mixture was stored at 4 to 10C before laboratory analysis for latex. While this mixture can be stored under these conditions up to five weeks without loss of latex, samples used in our studies were processed within 3 to 5 days after harvest.

Terry A. Coffelt¹ and Dennis T. Ray²

¹USDA-ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ 85239, USA

²Department of Plant Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0036, USA

    Guayule (Parthenium argentatum Gray) is a perennial shrub native to the Chihuahuan Desert. Apomictic reproduction in guayule makes breeding progress difficult. Breeding methods to take advantage of the facultative apomixis and occasional sexual reproduction that occurs in guayule are needed for faster breeding progress.

    The objective of this study was to evaluate the possibility of utilizing the pedigreed natural crossing method as a breeding method in guayule.

In the first experiment, three guayule lines (AZ 101, P10-4, and CAL-6) were interplanted with P. tomentosum plants in a natural crossing block. Plants were allowed to flower and set seed. Seed were germinated and the resulting plants compared with the parents to identify potential interspecific hybrids. In the second experiment, hybrid plants from crosses between diploid lines of guayule were interplanted and allowed to cross. Seeds were collected randomly and the resulting plants evaluated to identify potential hybrids.

    We isolated several natural hybrids from both breeding nurseries that are the result of hybridization between the Parthenium species and between guayule germplasm lines. These interspecific and intraspecific hybrids have been identified by characteristics such as leaf shape, leaf color, and leaf size. Current work is underway to verify the parents by chromosomal analyses.

    Plants that reproduce by apomixis and those that are highly self-pollinated both have highly uniform progenies, except for the occasional off-type. This off-type is frequently the result of out-crossing in self-pollinated species as well as in facultative apomictic species. Inter-planting of parents, allowing crossing to occur naturally, harvesting seed from the parents, and then examining the progeny for off-types can be used to develop populations for further selection and development of desirable lines. In self-pollinated species, the development of uniform lines may take several generations of selection and self-pollination, whereas in an apomictic species uniform lines may be able to be developed within one generation of apomictic reproduction. The added advantage is that any hybrid vigor associated with the original cross would also be fixed.

    Preliminary studies indicate that utilizing the pedigreed natural crossing method or modifications of this method in guayule is feasible. By using this method in guayule, breeding programs could lead to faster development of germplasm lines and cultivars for industry.

J.E. Collins, A.H. Taban, and D.K. Shintani

Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA

Natural rubber (cis-1, 4-polyisoprene) is formed in cytosolic vesicles known as rubber particles, and when provided the appropriate substrates, these vesicles contain the set of proteins needed for the biosynthesis of rubber. However, the identity and function of many of the rubber particle associated proteins responsible for synthesis remains unknown. One such protein is the small rubber particle protein (SRPP) that is found in high abundance in association with rubber particles in several rubber producing species, including Hevea brasiliensis and Taraxacum kok-saghyz (Russian dandelion). Addition of SRPP to purified rubber particles increases rubber production in vitro, suggesting an important role of these proteins in rubber biosynthesis. Unfortunately, in vivo data confirming SRPP function in rubber biosynthesis do not exist.

    The primary goals of this research were to characterize better the SRPP protein family and provide in vivo results corroborating SRPP function in rubber biosynthesis.

    To address our objectives, we are using reverse genetics in the model rubber producing species Russian dandelion to describe functionally SRPPs. We have generated SRPP-RNAi dandelion plants using Agrobacterium mediated transformation.

    Upon analysis of the transgenics, we hope to find a correlation between SRPP levels and rubber yield, suggesting a function in rubber biosynthesis.

E. Guerrero-Rodríguez, S. Solis-Gaona, D. Jasso de Rodríguez,

D. Hernández-Castillo, and V. Sandoval-López

Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25315, México

    Plant natural products are an alternative, efficient, and economical means to control plant diseases. In Mexico, there are many plant species widely distributed in the arid and semiarid zones that can be evaluated for their biological activity on phytopathogenic fungi. Flourensia cernua is native to these lands and its methanol extract has been reported to have inhibitory effects on Rhizoctonia solani and phytophtora infestations, and its hexane extract on Collectrotrichum spp.

In this work, we evaluated the effect of fresh leaf extracts from Flourensia cernua on mycelial inhibition and sporulation of a Penicillium digitatum postharvest phythogen.

    The extracts were obtained with methanol:chloroform (1:1), and sequential extraction with hexane, diethyl ether, and ethanol. The evaluated concentration were 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 ppm in the culture media PDA.

    The highest resin yield (19.1%) was obtained with the methanol:chloroform extractant. Mycelial inhibition on P. digitatum occurred at 93.4% and 94.0%, respectively with the 500 ppm of ethanol fraction. All extracts showed fungistatic effect. The hexane extract was effective against the sporulation pathogen at 500 ppm.

U.I. Hathwaik¹, K. Durant1, E. Villaluz¹, D. Harmon², J.A. Young², and D.K. Shintani¹

¹Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA

²USDA-ARS Reno, NV 89557, USA

    Natural rubber (cis-1,4-polyisoprene) latex is produced by more than 2000 plant species. The single commercial source, at present, is natural rubber harvested from the Brazilian rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis. Rubber produced from Hevea provides 99% of the world demand. Global dependence of natural rubber is risky because H. brasiliensis cultivars have very little genetic variability, leaving the rubber plantations at risk of serious pathogenic attack. This encouraged research interests in the development of alternative rubber sources. Rabbit brush (Chrysothamus nauseous) has been known to make high quality rubber with yields ranging from 1.5% to 6.5% of shoot dry weight. Rabbit brush grows well in marginal, alkaline soils, and drought conditions making it an ideal crop for the Great Basin region of the U.S. Past studies showed a variation in the amount of rubber production among the subspecies of rabbit brush and the specific habitat.

    The objective of this preliminary study was to screen wild rabbit brush populations to determine the natural variation in rubber content and quality. The amount of rubber produced in rabbit brush is known to change during the summer months. We are currently conducting an experiment to further investigate rubber production throughout the summer season.

    Rabbit brush seeds, plant tissue, and soil samples have been collected from various regions of northern Nevada and eastern California. Additionally, samples were collected from selected areas of Nevada to extract rubber to check for a change in rubber production. Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) was used to extract rubber from the collected plant tissue. The plant samples were analyzed for rubber content and molecular weight using gel permeation chromatography.

NMR analysis will be performed to determine the identity of the rubber. We are hoping to find a rabbit brush sub species that contains higher amounts of good quality rubber.

    Natural rubber is produced in over 2,000 plant species and due to its elasticity, flexibility, and resilience is irreplaceable by petroleum-based synthetics. It is required for manufacturing many industrial and medical products. In spite of the increasing demand and need for alternate sources for natural rubber, the rubber biosynthetic process still remains largely unknown.

    Because classical biochemical methods have failed to identify rubber biosynthetic proteins/genes, the objective of this study was to examine rubber biosynthesis using advanced proteomic- and genomic-based techniques.

    Our proteomic approach involves using comparative proteomic analyses of rubber particles from different rubber producing species. We have also generated 10,000 ESTs from both Russian dandelion root and guayule bark cDNA libraries that have been used to sort out the proteomics data.

    We identified highly abundant rubber particle proteins in both species and also proteins common between different rubber producing species have been revealed by combination of 2D/1D gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF-TOF analyses.

    Our proteomic- and genomic-based approaches have been highly successful in determining the rubber biosynthetic process, and more studies are being conducted to reveal the unknowns of the pathway.

M.E. Veatch-Blohm, D.T. Ray, V.H. Teetor, and B. Walsh

Division of Horticultural and Crop Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences,

The University of Arizona, Forbes 303, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

    Guayule (Parthenium argentatum Gray) has been difficult to improve through classical plant breeding due to both its facultative apomictic system of reproduction and the elasticity of the isoprenoid pathway. Correlations among traits and heritability of traits have been previously reported, and have been used in the determination of the most effective breeding methodologies to be used to increase rubber concentration and yield. Despite this information, increases in rubber concentration have been low, although significant increases in yield per area have been realized. Previous estimates of heritability were done with methods that assume outcrossing; however, guayule reproduces predominately by apomixis and occasionally sexually. We propose an alternative method of calculating heritability in guayule that more accurately accounts for the contributions of apomictic and sexual reproduction using a modified parent progeny regression.

    Open pollinated progeny from 21 tissue culture generated parents were grown for two years in the same field where the parents had been grown the previous two seasons. Growth and secondary compound production were measured at one and two years in both the parents and the progeny. Due to unequal family sizes, weighted regressions were performed to examine parent-progeny relationships. Heritability was calculated using a modified version of the formula for single parent-progeny regression (h2 = 2b): that is, h2 = (2 – p) b, where p = proportion of apomixis and b = regression coefficient. We also examined the rank correlation among traits.

    At two years of growth, there was a significant regression between the parents and the progeny for all traits measured except rubber content and guayulin A and B concentrations, with heritability estimates ranging from moderate to high for most parameters measured. Because guayule is more apomictic than sexual, most heritability values should fall closer to the midparent-progeny regression estimate (p = 1; complete apomixis) resulting in lower heritability estimates than previously published.

    To increase rubber yield in the progeny, selection should focus on height and width in the parents because height and width are highly correlated with rubber yield and had the highest heritability of the traits measured.

M.E. Veatch-Blohm and D.T. Ray

Division of Horticultural and Crop Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences,

The University of Arizona, Forbes 303, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

    Guayule (Parthenium argentatum Gray), a native of the Chihuahuan desert, produces the majority of its rubber during the winter months. Increased rubber production is thought to be induced by cold night temperatures, but the factors involved in rubber induction are not completely understood. The purpose of this study was to understand how immature plants (< 180 d) respond to night temperature, and the role of night temperature and carbon exchange in rubber production in mature plants (≈ 1y). This study evaluated the contributions of night temperature, carbon exchange, and plant age on rubber production during the winter months.

Immature and mature plants were grown in differentially heated enclosures over two and three consecutive winters, respectively. The warm-night plants were exposed to simulated summer night temperatures and the cold-night plants to ambient winter night temperatures. Plant responses to different night temperatures were monitored by measuring growth, carbon exchange, fresh and dry weight, and resin and rubber production.

    Resin concentration was not affected by night temperature in either mature or immature plants. Rubber concentration was significantly related to night temperature in both mature and immature plants and appears to be stimulated most by temperatures below 10°C. Rubber concentration of the mature plants was higher in the cold-night than the warm-night plants for all three years. Immature plants exposed to cold nights had higher rubber concentration than the warm-night plants only in the first year, which had the lowest night temperatures. For the mature plants, dry weight was not significantly different between treatments, but rubber concentration and yield were significantly greater in the cold-night than the warm-night plants. The cold-night plants also had carbon exchange rates that were as high as or higher than the warm-night plants for all three years. Therefore, the similarity in dry weight between treatments was most likely due to increased growth in the warm-night plants and increased rubber deposition in the cold-night plants.

K.H. Bang¹, D.S. In¹, B.C Ku², and S.W. Kim²

    To obtain the most complete metabolic profiling, it is necessary to use a wide spectrum of analytical techniques that are rapid, reproducible, and stable in time and require only a very simple sample preparation. NMR is one of the techniques that meet those requirements. Recently, NMR in combination with principal component analysis has been applied to the metabolic profiling of several types of plants and phytomedicines.

    The discrimination of fresh ginseng roots at different ages is still unclear. Until now the classical methods using the content of ginsenoside and the counting of the number of bud scale scars on the roots are applied for discrimination. However, the limitations of these methods are their reproducibility and relatively low consistency. Therefore, development of more reliable method for discrimination of the fresh ginseng roots at various ages (1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old) is required. In this study, we report a 1H NMR spectroscopic method coupled with multivariate analysis for the discrimination of fresh ginseng roots at various ages.

The metabolic profiling analysis of fresh ginseng according to the roots ages was performed using 1H NMR spectroscopy and multivariate analysis techniques. A broad range of metabolites could be detected by 1H NMR spectroscopy without any chromatographic separation. In the 1H NMR spectra of the fresh ginseng root extracts, the major metabolic constituents including aliphatic, carbohydrate, and aromatic regions were detected. The principal component analysis (PCA) used to reduce the huge data set obtained from the 1H NMR spectra of roots extracts clearly discriminated according to the roots ages.

    For reliable and easy comparison of the metabolic profiling, the large 1H NMR data set obtained from various metabolites can be reduced to PC1, PC2, or PC3 using PCA. 3D scores plot using PC1, PC2, and PC3 also showed clearly separation at different roots ages. For the data set obtained from the analysis of each water extract, a three-component model explained about 90% of the variance. The main factors to differentiate the fresh ginseng root at different ages were the regions of carbohydrates and amino acids. Multivariate statistical method was found to be an ideal method to differentiate the fresh ginseng roots at different ages with each other based on a variety of metabolites. Canonical discriminant analysis could be used to identify the ginseng roots at various ages with over 90% discrimination accuracy of NMR results.

    Considering all the results, 1H NMR and PCA seems to be a very promising tool for the authentication and quality control of the fresh ginseng roots at different ages.

D.Y. Hyun¹, D.S. In¹, H.Y. Seo² , C.W. Kim³, Y.S. Jang³, and E.T. Lee³

¹National Institute of Crop Science, Suwon 441-857, Republic of Korea

²Honam Agricultural Research Institute, NICS, Iksan 570-080, Republic of Korea

³Mokpo Experiment Station, NICS, Muan 534-833, Republic of Korea

    Vernalization is a term that describes the promotion of flowering after exposure to cold. In many crops in which the vegetative portions of the plant are the commodity such as cabbage, beets, or carrots, a strong vernalization requirement prevents flowering in the first growing season. Premature release of dormancy can obviously lead to cold damage, but retention of some dormancy because of insufficient chilling can lead to developmental problems in the next growing season that reduce yield. Thus, for optimal yields from some crops, it is crucial that the length of cold exposure required to break dormancy coincides well with the typical length of winter in a particular location.

    One of the most crucial decisions in life cycle of a plant is when to initiate flowering, cultivated Allium cepa (onion) is a biennial plant requiring vernalization and thus a cold season to bolt and flower, but for commercial purposes, onion is grown as an annual plant to avoid bolting. Breeders were developing new varieties more resistant to bolting with breeding programs aiming to produce hybrids through sexual reproduction and crossings. The requirements for floral initiation of onion are far from being fully understood and a better knowledge of the factors regulating flowering in bulb onion, in particular, is urgently needed. Our aim was to define how bolting of onion is affected by biogenetic reaction at the time of overwintering.

    The experiments were performed using two onion varieties: MOS8 male sterility strain (developed by Hyun, Dongyun, Mokpo experiment station, Korea), which is late flower bolting type and Guikum (provided by Kaneko Seed Co., Ltd, Japan), which is classified as a very early flower bolting type. Total protein extracts were prepared from basal tissues, meristematically active parts of bulbs. Samples were extracted using a 2-D electrophoresis method. Proteins were electroblotted onto PVDF membrane using a semidry transfer blotter, and visualized by CBB staining. The proteins were excised from the PVDF membrane and analyzed by Edman degradation method using a procise clc protein sequencer.

    Flowering time is regulated by both environmental and developmental factors. The early bolting ecotype is sensitive to cold induction, whereas the late bolting ecotype is insensitive. Analysis of the genetic basis of cross late bolting type (MOS 8 line) and very early bolting type (Guikum) indicated 1 : 3 segregation with the late bolting dominant in the F₂ progeny. The early bolting type showed expression of mRNA level of VRN1 in basal tissue-specific, but did not show expression of FLC mRNA and histone 3 modification. It was identified that the late bolting ecotype did not reduce FLC mRNA and trimethylation of H3-K4 expression by vernalization.

    The appearance of late flower bolting ecotype with vernalization may be an advantage where severe winter conditions prevent bolting and also there is a selective advantage in escaping harvesting time.

O.T. Kim¹, B. Hwang², K.H. Bang¹, Y.C. Kim¹, J.S. Sung¹, D.H. Kim¹, S.W. Cha¹, N.S. Seong¹, and H.W. Park¹

²Department of Biology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Korea

    Farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPS) is a key enzyme in isoprenoid biosynthesis leading to many molecules that have an important role in cellular metabolism. It is also the branching point of pathways leading to the synthesis of a large variety of sesquiterpene and triterpene products. Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) contains a number of ginsenosides and their roots have a large amount of saponins. Therefore, ginseng root is an ideal model to study the biosyntheses of triterpene saponins and regulation of those pathways by elicitor influences. As a first step in understanding the regulatory of isoprenoid pathways, we isolated a cDNA encoding FPS from ginseng roots and characterized the gene by molecular works.

    Four-year-old P. ginseng was obtained from the National Institute of Crop Science (Suwon, Korea). A cDNA encoding FPS was isolated from P. ginseng using degenerate primers designed from two highly conserved domains. A full-length cDNA clone was subsequently isolated by rapid amplification of cDNA ends PCR.

The sequence of PgFPS (P. ginseng FPS) contains an open reading frame of 1038 nucleotides that codes for 346 amino acids with a molecular mass of 39.7 kDa. The deduced amino acid sequence of PgFPS exhibits 84%, 79%, and 72%, identity to those of the Artemisia annua, Arabidopsis thaliana, and Oryza stavia FPS, respectively. The artificially expressed soluble form of the PgFPS enzyme was identified by SDS-PAGE and PgFPS exhibits high specific activity that produces farnesyl diphosphate as the major isoprenoid. In Northern blot analysis, up-regulation of expression of PgFPS in hairy roots treated with methyl jasmonate was demonstrated.

    Therefore, our results suggest that a cloned PgFPS from ginseng be considered as a candidate for investigating the regulation of triterpene biosynthesis.