2006 Program

New Crops and Processing Research, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, USDA, ARS, Peoria, IL, USA

As a result of increased consumption of fuel and petroleum derived products, interest in fuels and products derived from agriculture materials has significantly increased leading to a new age for agriculture. To meet this demand for fuels, focus has been placed on carbohydrates and fats derived from traditional and new crops.

This presentation will be directed toward the utilization of seed oils as fuels and industrial chemicals. The fast- and short-term answers to biodiesel have always been soybean. Unfortunately, soybean oil has several shortcomings in its effort to supply the U.S. market. First and foremost is the fact that, if all current soybean oil was converted to biodiesel, we could only supply 12% of the U.S. diesel demand. Furthermore, we would not begin to address all of the specialty chemical needs such as plastics, lubricants, coatings, and the thousands of other products derived from petroleum.

Established oilseed crops such as canola, rapeseed, sunflower, and flax have high oil yields and can meet some of the burden for fuel production. However, these oils are used extensively in food and the resulting balance between food vs. fuel must be considered.

New crops that can be grown in rotation with the more traditional crops, off-season production, and utilization of land not currently under cultivation will also play a role in meeting these industrial needs. Pennycress, camelina, and Brassica juncea have potential as over winter crops in rotation with soybean production throughout the Midwest. The high oil content and the fatty acid profiles of these mustard crops make them suitable for utilization as both fuels and base stocks for functionalized industrial chemicals. Coriander, meadowfoam, cuphea, and lesquerella provide novel chemical moieties that make them desirable for a wide range of industrial chemicals.

Lastly, exploration of new plant species, particularly plants native to regions where there is little current agriculture activity will be necessary to identify potentially novel materials and growing regions if we are to fully meet the needs of a future with limited petroleum resources.

USDA Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, Washington, DC, USA

The USDA has a portfolio of funding opportunities that support research and development in the emerging bioeconomy. This presentation describes the various programs that make a significant contribution to the development and adoption of alternative technologies to increase energy independence and to offer new opportunities for industrial crops.

The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES) competitive grant programs support fundamental and early-applied research through the National Research Initiative, pre-commercialization research through the Small Business Innovation Research Program, and academic training is supported through Science and Education Resources Development programs (http://csrees.usda.gov). CSREES collaborates with the Department of Energy through joint solicitations for the Plant Feedstock Genomics program and for the Biomass Research and Development Initiative (http://www.brdisolutions.com/default.aspx). The Biodiesel Fuel Education Program, co-administered with USDA’s Office of Energy Policy and New Uses since 2003, has played a significant role in educating the public about the benefits of biodiesel use, and for identifying fuel quality issues that arise with increasing production and use (www.biodiesel.org).

The USDA’s Rural Development offices offer grant and loan programs to demonstrate value-added processing and renewable energy technologies (www.rurdev.usda.gov).

The current focus for USDA research programs is on biofuels, but biobased industrial products can also contribute to reduced reliance on petroleum and improve returns to the farmer and the local community. The USDA’s Biopreferred Purchasing Program creates a tremendous market pull for new products through the purchasing power of the Federal government. USDA has recently designated the first of many biobased items that will be given first preference for purchase by Federal agencies (www.biobased.oce.usda.gov). This program will allow agencies to meet their environmental goals, and will open new opportunities for industrial crops to meet the expanding market for biobased products that are cost competitive and can meet performance requirements.

As the USDA moves forward in the development of new technologies to provide liquid fuels, power, and products from renewable agricultural and forestry resources, programs must also include priorities that address sustainability. The investment in R&D should address the economic, environmental, and social implications of technology, management practices, and policies.

Conventional wisdom offers multiple reasons as to why biofuels will never displace a significant fraction of the world’s transportation fuel demand – inability to attain critical mass, lack of available land, insufficient incentives for farmers, and lack of cost competitiveness.

We believe that high-yielding dedicated energy crops offer the potential to overcome all of these issues. Higher yield densities lead to more gallons of biofuel per acre than can be derived from traditional crops. Crops designed to grow on marginal land enable use of vast areas not currently used in agriculture. High yields and reduced input requirements create farmer economics that are competitive with the most attractive traditional crops. Higher yield densities also offer significant economies in harvest and transportation costs, thus improving the overall economics of the resulting biofuels. Ceres is rapidly developing these high-yielding dedicated energy crops.

It is easily recognized that the realization of limited petroleum resources and the run-up of oil prices, along with political instability in regions, have finally reached a point where the public and governments are paying close attention to alternatives, which are based on renewable (sustainable) resources.

Green products are not a new invention and neither is the concept of sustainability. New, however, seems to be that the current trend is in fact “sustainable” economically, as many major corporations have committed considerable resources to developing processes that use biomass rather than petroleum as a feedstock. At the same time, new products are created and marketed as “green” or from renewable resources, making their way onto the shelves of large chains, rather than specialty shops. The presentation today will take a look at what “green” and “sustainability” mean in the context of the chemical industry, and the surfactant industry in particular.

This presentation reports on the developmental activities of the University of Northern Iowa’s National Ag-Based Lubricants (NABL) Center and the commercialization of lubricants for Industrial and for Automotive use. Since 1991, the Center’s work has been focused on the creation of soybean oil-based lubricants, primarily for industrial markets. The Center’s efforts have resulted in the successful commercialization of over 30 industrial lubricants and grease.

Since 2006, the Center’s scope has been expanded to also include research and development into the use of vegetable oils for automotive oil and fuel applications. Vegetable oils, due to their polar nature, adhere better to metal surfaces and offer better protection against friction and wear. They have about 100°C higher flash and fire points than their equivalent petroleum counterparts, resulting in safer performance. At the same time, vegetable oil-based lubricants have shortcomings, including an inherent lack of oxidation stability and a higher pour point.

This report reviews approaches to addressing these shortcomings, as well as field test reports and commercialization summaries of biobased hydraulic fluids, machining fluids, gear oils, tractor/transmission fluids, and GC-LB rated greases. In addition, the promotion and use of biobased products is a part of the United States strategy for reducing dependence on imported petroleum. This report provides a brief overview of the USDA’s efforts to label biobased products, as well as federal purchasing requirements for the use of these products.

EVALUATION OF SWEET SORGHUM (SORGHUM BICOLOR (L.) MOENCH) GERMPLASM AS A POSSIBLE FEEDSTOCK FOR

Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) has been grown traditionally as a syrup and sugar crop in the southeastern United States, but increasing demand for alternative fuels has led to renewed interest in cultivating sweet sorghum as a source of fermentable carbohydrates. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of sweet sorghum as a feedstock for ethanol production in Arizona.

Thirty-one lines of sweet sorghum were planted on 25 April 2006. All lines were evaluated for height, lodging and insect damage at the end of June. Five lines were evaluated weekly through June for height, leaf number, and tiller number. Each line was harvested 30 days after it reached 50% bloom and juice was extracted from a 15-stalk sub-sample. Potential ethanol yields for each variety were calculated based on sugar content (ºBrix), juice extraction, and plot weight using a conversion rate of 1.58 kg sugar per l (13.2 lb per gallon) of ethanol. Ten lines were harvested at different times during the growing season to monitor sugar development. Juice samples were analyzed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) for sucrose, glucose, and fructose contents.

Plant height, number of leaves, and number of tillers differed significantly among the five lines measured weekly. Plant height and the extent of lodging and insect damage for all lines differed significantly by rep and by type of sorghum (sugar, syrup, or forage). Predicted ethanol yields of the lines tested varied significantly and ranged from 635.8±144.0 l ha^-1 to 3588.5±447.9 l ha^-1. Sugar content and plot weight tended to increase with later maturity, whereas juice extraction decreased in later-maturing lines. Glucose and fructose concentrations were highly correlated, and both were negatively correlated with sucrose concentration.

The results of this study suggest that sweet sorghum may be suitable for ethanol production in Arizona. Future work should include screening of additional germplasm and breeding sweet sorghum lines specifically adapted to Arizona’s climate and agricultural infrastructure.

⁴Biological & Agricultural Engineering, Kansas State Univ., Manhattan, KS 66506, USA

⁵Crop and Soil Sciences Department, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA

⁶Crop and Soil Sciences Department, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA

Investors have committed to the construction of new ethanol plants in the southeast in spite of the grain-deficit status of this region. Pearl millet is a likely viable supplemental feedstock. The DDGS has a greater nutritional value, resulting in a lower net cost of ethanol production from pearl millet. Because the fermentation process concentrates mycotoxins in grain, DDGS from pearl millet will have lower mycotoxin levels due to its resistance to fungi that produce aflatoxins and fumonisins. No information exists on the differences in fermentability among pearl millet hybrids, or genotype x environment interactions in feedstock quality. The objective of this preliminary study was to assess experimental pearl millet hybrids for genotype and environment effects on yield, proximate composition, ethanol yield, and fermentation efficiency.

Yield trials were established at Moultrie, Tifton, Watkinsville, and Newton GA in 2006. Fertilizer was applied at 88 kg N/ha. Grain was combine-harvested, and yields were corrected to 15.5% moisture. Grain was evaluated for protein, fat, and starch content on a dry basis, and for fermentation efficiency.

Experimental hybrid (606 x 2304) was among the top yielding hybrids at all locations. Across all locations, hybrid (606 x 2304) had 17% greater yield than TG102. The hybrid (606 x 2304) had 40% higher 100-grain weight, 7% lower protein content, similar fat, 50% greater starch, and 14% greater fermentation efficiency than TG102. For all hybrids, ethanol yield was correlated with starch content (R=0.91, P<0.0001) and fermentation efficiency (R=0.37, P=0.03), but was negatively correlated with protein content (R= -0.88, P<0.0001).

It will be possible to select hybrids that produce higher levels of ethanol for the developing bioenergy industry in the southeast. The negative correlation of ethanol yield with protein content may affect the economics of fermentation by reducing the DDGS quantity, and may also affect grain value for the alternative use markets.

¹Plant & Soil Science Department, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA

Increasingly limited supplies of irrigation water available from the Ogallala Aquifer and the semi-arid climate limits the sustainable production of biodiesel feedstocks on the 7.3 million hectares of cropland of the Southern Great Plains of Texas.

The two strategies being pursued to reduce water needed to produce biodiesel feedstocks are to develop fall planted oilseed crops that grow during the cooler months and to select drought tolerant genotypes of spring planted oilseed crops.

In the 2006-2007 growing season, three trials were established at Lubbock, TX. The first trial evaluated the winter survival and seed yield potential of three spring cultivars and 59 accessions from the USDA Germplasm Collection of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). The 10 accessions with over 50% survival produced seed yields, which ranged from 1413 to 3,448 kg/ha. In the second trial, 228 accessions from the USDA castor (Ricinus communis L.) germplasm collection, four Brazilian varieties, and two U.S. varieties were screened for drought tolerance. The third trial determined the relative water production functions for two cultivars of eight spring-planted oilseed crops grown under subsurface drip irrigation at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80% of potential evapotranspiration (PET). The species evaluated in this trial included castor, safflower, sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), Oriental mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Cross), yellow mustard (Sinapsis alba L.), and camelina (Camelina sativa L.). The information gained from these trials will help develop sustainable biodiesel feedstock production across this extensive crop production region.

¹Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Southern Crop Protection and Food Research Centre,

²Dept. of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1

³Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Simcoe Resource Centre,

The decline in tobacco production in southern Ontario has led many growers searching for alternative crops. One possible diversification opportunity is the cultivation of crops that generate multiple revenue streams. For example, crops such as tobacco and amaranth not only produce large amounts of biomass, which in the future could be used as a feedstock for ethanol or bio-gas production, but they also produce very high quality protein that could be used in the cosmetic and food industries. Furthermore, refinements in processing offer the potential for the isolation of other economically valuable chemicals from biomass crops.

The objective of this preliminary study was to examine the feasibility of growing tobacco and amaranth at high density for the production of native protein, recombinant protein, small molecules, and biomass. Data collected will be used to develop new agronomic practices and economic models for this novel type of agriculture.

In the summer of 2007, multiple, replicated field experiments were carried out to examine the influence of different factors on the production of biomass, protein, and small molecules by different varieties of tobacco. The treatments included plant density and nitrogen fertilization rates, seedling production in trays with different cell numbers, application of fungicide to newly transplanted seedlings, and seeding/transplanting methods. Plants were harvested at the stretch bud stage, leaving about 15.2 cm of stem for regrowth in the field. Leaf sub-samples were taken for chemical and protein analyses. Fresh and dry weights were recorded and used to estimate biomass yields. A second harvest was performed on the plant material that re-grew after the initial harvest.

We will report on the small molecule, protein, and biomass yields for the 2007 field experiments and discuss the challenges faced when moving from low- to high-density crop plantings. We will also provide a preliminary comparison of the cost of using transplants vs. direct seeding for stand establishment.

¹National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, USDA-ARS, Peoria, IL 61604, USA

Increased production of biodiesel in the U.S. and Europe during the past several years has created an oversupply of glycerol and lowered domestic profitability. In addition, increased petroleum prices have increased the cost of synthetic polymers made from petrochemicals. Glycerol can be polymerized with phthalic acid to form polyesters that are commonly referred to as glyptal resins. Glycerol can also react with other di- or tri-carboxylic acids such as azeleic acid or citric acid to form polymers with variable properties.

The objective of this study was to examine the physical and chemical properties of polyesters formed by reacting di- and tri-carboxylic acids with glycerol, and to evaluate the applications of these polymers.

Glycerol was reacted at temperatures ranging from 75 to 290°C with the following organic acids: malonic (propanedioic); citric (2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetrioic); succinic (butanedioic); maleic (z-butenedioic); adipic (hexanedioic); phthalic (1,2-benzenedioic); suberic (octanedioic); azelaic (nonanedioic); and sebacic (decanedioic).

Generally, temperatures below 100^°C did not result in polymerization. Higher reaction temperatures generally created porous polymers, whereas lower (100-125^°C) temperatures created dense polymers. Malonic acid tended to sublime at temperatures of 125^°C or greater, and malonic, citric, succinic, and maleic acid-glycerol polymers decomposed when placed in water, whereas phthalic acid polymers tended to soften when placed in water. Adipic, suberic, azeleic, and sebacic acid-glycerol polymers were water-fast and flexible, although the longer-chain acids required extra reaction time. Adipic acid-glycerol polymers combined with a variety of organic compounds with differing chemical characteristics were cast in 20-cm-diameter pie pans to produce biopolymer mats. Preliminary data indicate that improved plant growth and pest protection can be achieved by the use of these mats around horticultural plants such as tomatoes.

The use of glycerol to produce glycerol-organic acid polymers for horticultural applications demonstrates an attractive novel use of this commodity.

SAPONARIA VACCARIA – A POTENTIAL INDUSTRIAL/MEDICINAL CROP FOR THE CANADIAN PRAIRIES

Saponaria vaccaria (syn. Vaccaria pyramidata, V. hispanica, com. cow cockle), a weed species introduced into North America from Eurasia, is a member of the Caryophyllaceae family that was originally investigated in the 1970s as a potential new starch crop for the northern Great Plains. Since that time, significant phytochemical work on the seed, which is used in traditional Chinese medicine, was carried out and led to renewed interest in the species as a potential new crop for production, not only for specialty small-grained starches, but also of various phytochemicals with industrial and medicinal applications.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the agronomics of various landraces for selection and production of true breeding, high yielding plants with ‘appropriate’ chemical profiles.

Seeds from a variety of sources were obtained and grown at several sites in Saskatchewan over a five-year period. Various agronomic characteristics were evaluated, double haploidy protocols were developed, as well as chemical analyses for the various classes of compounds.

In general, Saponaria was amenable to large-scale cultivation. The species responded well to nitrogen application, tolerated early season frosts and summer droughts, was not impacted by insects, and was competitive with many indigenous weeds. Some disease problems were noted, however, particularly with Alternaria. Evaluation of haploidy protocols was successful and led to the production of several double haploid lines. Chemical analysis methods for phenolics, saponins, and cyclopeptides were developed and used to examine the variability of these components.

In conclusion, the plant Saponaria possesses attractive agronomic characteristics making it amenable to large-scale cultivation in the Canadian Prairies utilizing available equipment. It produces a number of products, which in theory, should be marketable if efficient large-scale processing methods can be developed. Currently, a local company, Saponin Inc., is working to produce and market products from this plant.

¹New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program, Cook College, Rutgers and

The New Jersey Agricultural Experimental Station (NJAES), The State University of

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) is an annual shrub, widely grown in Central and West Africa. Hibiscus is utilized world wide in the production of drinks (e.g., herbal or ice teas), jellies, sauces, chutneys, wines, preserves, and natural food colorants (anthocyanins). The production of hibiscus calyces in developing countries is becoming important for income generation activities for the benefit of rural communities.

The objective of this study was to assess the quality of hibiscus calyces grown in Senegal during the 2004 and 2005 production years.

Hibiscus calyces were grown in different regions in Senegal during the production season of 2004 (29 samples) and 2005 (24 samples). Quality control analyses (color, foreign matter, moisture, ash, and total anthocyanin) were conducted on the hibiscus calyces.

The 2004 samples had a high variation in their color with 40% of the calyces being medium red or pink. The color of the 2005 production was more homogeneous with the majority of the samples being dark red. The foreign matter content of the 2004 calyces varied from almost 0% to 0.8%. The 2005 production had much lower levels of foreign parts in the dried hibiscus calyces (less than 0.2%). The moisture content was also higher in the 2004 samples with some of these higher than 12%, whereas the 2005 samples had lower levels (less than 8%). The acid insoluble ashes showed that 44% of the 2004 samples exhibited values higher than 1% indicating that these samples were contaminated with sand and soil.

All the 2005 samples had low levels (less than 1%) of acid insoluble ashes. A maximum of 1% is usually acceptable for international standards. A method to measure total anthocyanins was adapted for the hibiscus calyces. The 2005 samples were more homogeneous and had higher anthocyanin content than the 2004 samples.

By assessing the quality of the hibiscus calyces in the 2004 production in Senegal, it was possible to increase significantly the quality of hibiscus calyces in the 2005 production. Due to the quality assessment and improvement, Senegal is now commercializing high quality calyces for the U.S. market.

South Africa needs information on crops suitable for the small farmer that are low risk and drought tolerant. At present, South Africa imports € 5.5 million worth of essential oils per year. They are used in the consumer market (culinary, perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical) and industry. International demand for natural products is growing at a rate of 15% per year. South Africa’s share of the world exports in essential oils is estimated at 1.03%. A worldwide demand exists for the rose geranium essential oil of the Pelargonium species that contains geraniol, linalool, and citronellol as substitutes for the expensive attar of rose in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species are indigenous to South Africa and were known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people. Geranium oil production was not sustainable in the past in African countries. Most rural areas of South Africa are densely populated and poverty stricken. These communities rely on subsistence farming as a livelihood. Limited information on geranium cultivation methods such as plant density, yields, harvesting methods and co-operative farming and markets has led us to undertake this study. There have been signs developing for growing essential oils in South Africa by commercial and emerging farmers since 2000. However, the lack of affordable access, and suitable and applicable information prevented many farmers from entering the essential oil business.

The objective of this study was to determine the farming potential in terms of maximum yield for emerging farmers. This study focuses on planting density, harvesting techniques, and yield. The ultimate objective was to transfer the knowledge acquired to the emerging farmers in South Africa.

Initial trials were established at the Lowveld College of Agriculture and with various commercial farmers located in different climatic zones. Plant densities were varied over the range of 15000, 25000, and 35000 plants per ha. The results were compared with the production obtained at the various sites from commercial farmers, community projects, and agricultural trials. Investigations also compared harvesting methods, and different sizes and distillation units.

Larger plant densities than the prescribed South African norm of 15000 plants per ha, and harvesting methods were investigated to promote this crop as a profitable option for the emerging farmers.

Geranium can be grown as a profitable crop by the emerging farmers in South Africa provided suitable agronomic and technological information are provided.

ALOE VERA CO₂ ASSIMILATION INDEX OVER TWO LOCALITIES AND DIFFERENT SOIL WATER DEFICITS

R. Rodríguez-García¹, F. Zavala-García², D. Jasso de Rodríguez¹, and J. Patishtan¹

¹Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25315, México

²Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Marín, Nuevo León, México

The objective of this work was to determinate the influence of climatic condition changes and soil water deficit on CO₂ assimilation index in order to establish optimal Aloe vera growth conditions.

The experiments were conducted at two locations: (1) Marin Experimental Station, at the Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, latitude 25° 23´ N, longitude 100° 02´ W, altitude 400 masl, semiarid warm climate and an average temperature of 22°C during the year; (2) Buenavista Experimental Station at the Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro in Saltillo Coahuila, México, latitude 25° 21´ N, longitude 100° 00´ W, altitude 1743 masl, semiarid mild climate, and an annual average temperature of 17°C.

For estimating the influence of soil water deficit over sabila assimilation index, two different treatments were designed. A control treatment where irrigation was applied two times per week to maintain the soil moisture at field capacity (low deficit), and a drought treatment, where after each initial irrigation, the following irrigation was applied only when the soil water content level was lower than the permanent wilting point (high deficit). Two drought periods were evaluated at each location.

Measurements of CO₂ assimilation index (AI), transpiration (T), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf temperature (LT), active photosynthetic radiation (PAR), and internal CO₂ (Ci) were carried out with a LI-6400 portable system. The equipment was modified to include a camera for the sabila leaves, in which part of the leaf was placed into a 40 cm long chamber. Physiological changes were measured over a 24-h period with intervals of 1.5 to 2 h at the beginning and end point of the drought cycle using four plants and one leaf per plant per treatment.

ANTIFUNGAL EFFECTS in vitro OF SEMIARID PLANT EXTRACTS AGAINST POST-HARVEST FUNGI

Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, 25315, México

The crop losses from post-harvest diseases were estimated from 10 to 30% of total production, and in some perishable crops greater than 30%. Mexico has a great diversity of plants that have been found to have inhibitors of some phytopathogenic fungus, resulting in additional sources of plants with antifungal activity.

The objective of the present work was to determine in vitro the antifungal effects of Fluorensia cernua, Fluorensia retinophylla, Fluorensia microphylla, Agave lechuguilla, and Larrea tridentata against Colletotrichum gloesporoides, Alternaria alternata, and Rhizopus sp.

Plant leaves were placed into flasks with solvents (ethanol and mixture of methanol-chloroform (1:1)) and constantly agitated for 22 h. The solutions were filtered and the solvent was removed with a vacuum system. Extracts were tested in concentrations of 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, and 5000 µl l^-1. Mycelial growth inhibition was evaluated.

Results from mean comparison of the three Fluorensia species showed that the 4000 and 5000 µl l^-1 doses had high inhibition with values of 84.8 and 86.7% for C. gloesporoides, respectively, and against A. alternate were 90.6 and 95.9% and for Rhizopus sp. were 91.0 and 95.9%, respectively. The plant with the least fungal growth was F. retinophylla in ethanol extract. For L. tridentata and A. lechuguilla, the 4000 µl l^-1 dose had higher inhibition over C. gloesporoides (100%), A. alternata (66.4%), and Rhizopus sp. (78.9%). The species with the highest inhibition was L. tridentata at 80.5 %.

The unusual fibre properties of hesperaloe (Agavaceae), an arid-zone plant, were discovered in the late 1980s by scientists at the University of Arizona. During the past 15 years, considerable advances have been made in the domestication of this plant as a sustainable source of agricultural fibre for the pulp and paper industry.

The unique fibre morphology was subsequently identified in the late 1990s to be well suited for overcoming the technical barrier in the manufacture of a new class of ultra lightweight printing paper.

The physical strengths of hesperaloe pulp have been demonstrated to be 3 to 4 time greater than those of premium softwood kraft pulp. It has been estimated that one hectare of hesperaloe crop could offset the harvesting of about 60 hectares of boreal-forest trees for papermaking. Pre-commercial demonstration of the performance of the hesperaloe printing paper is being undertaken presently with the cooperation of Greenpeace Germany.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SEED DEVELOPMENT

OF CUPHEA PSR23

Marisol T. Berti^{1, 2} and Burton L. Johnson¹

¹Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA

²Departamento de Producción Vegetal, Facultad de Agronomía,

Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile

Cuphea (Cuphea viscosissima Jacq. x C. lanceolata W.T. Aiton, PSR23) is a new oilseed crop being developed in the northcentral USA. Cuphea oil is composed of high amounts of medium-chain fatty acids that are suitable for detergent/cleaner applications and have potential for cosmetics.

The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of seed development on seed moisture, weight, oil content, fatty acid composition, germination, and vigor.

Two thousand cuphea flowers were tagged at anthesis in the field each year at Prosper, ND in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Each flower (that developed into a seed capsule) was tagged with the date of anthesis. Two hundred developed capsules from the labeled flowers were harvested at 3- to 4-d intervals from 5- to 35-d post anthesis corresponding with 37 to 295 growing degree-days (GDD). The GDD were calculated using a base temperature of 10°C.

Seed development required approximately 253 GDD or 30 d post anthesis to reach physiological maturity. Maximum seed germination was reached at 33 d post anthesis. Seed oil content increased and oil composition changed as seed matured. Seed oil was high in linoleic and palmitic acids from 0 to 10 d post anthesis and declined thereafter. Capric acid began to accumulate at 10 d post anthesis and reached above 70% at physiological maturity.

²USDA-ARS, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, IL, USA

An understanding about the development of seeds and their storage oils is needed for plant improvement. This research followed seed weight, and the accumulation of oil content and the predominate fatty acids found in the seed oil from anthesis until maturity.

This study was made on both fall-planted (11 October 2006) and spring-planted (15 March 2007) lesquerella (Lesquerella fendleri) by tagging flowers and analyzing the seeds produced. The sampling dates of developed fruits (siliques) for both plantings were 7, 12, 15, 19, 22, 26, 29, 33, 36, and 41 days after flowering (DAF). On 27 April 2007, 200 flowers were tagged in the fall-planted field and sampling occurred from 3 May (7 DAF) until 6 June 6 (41 DAF). On 1 June 2007, 300 flowers were tagged in the spring-planted field and sampling occurred from 8 June (7 DAF) until 11 July (41 DAF).

The sigmoidal curve for the seed dry weight over 41 DAF was steeper in the spring- than the fall-planted dry weight. Lesquerolic acid accumulated faster and began at an earlier date in the spring planting than the fall planting. Other fatty acids followed a similar trend. The oil quality and quantity were unaffected by these temperatures. Spring planting of lesquerella would greatly reduce the length of time a grower would have land in production than the fall planting, and thereby reduce production costs.

We determined yield components of lesquerella (Lesquerella fendleri) cultivated on three variable soils and sown in either the fall of 2006 or the spring of 2007. Plants from 0.125 m² of land area were harvested weekly and the number of buds, flowers, and siliques were determined.

Plants sown in the fall on a heavy clay soil senesced rapidly and prematurely upon commencement of irrigation treatments initiated near the beginning of reproductive development. Plants sown in either the fall or the spring on well-drained sandy loam soils required irrigation every 7 to 10 days and produced comparable seed yields. Yield development was characterized by a steady decline in flowers per m² and a steady increase in siliques per m². Buds per m² declined gradually after peaking during the early stages of reproductive growth. All phases of reproductive development were much faster for the spring- than the fall-planted crop.

We conclude that (1) knowledge of soil type is critical to lesquerella cultivation due to the extreme sensitivity of the crop to water logging and (2) spring planting may be a viable alternative to the traditional fall planting of the crop.

Management of weedy vegetation in fall-planted Lesquerella fendleri (Gray) S. Wats. is critical for successful crop production due to lesquerella’s slow growth during establishment and short stature. Lesquerella is a broadcast planted crop that makes mechanical cultivation impossible and hand weeding difficult and expensive. Thus, chemical control of weeds with herbicides will be necessary for successful lesquerella crop production.

The objective of this initial study was to determine the tolerance of lesquerella to several rates of various preemergence herbicides when the herbicides were applied at various times after planting under sprinkler irrigation, and when they were applied after planting and before the first flood irrigation.

Two experiments were conducted in which lesquerella was planted in level basins in October 2006 and was flood irrigated except that in Experiment I the field was sprinkler irrigated three times, once after three different herbicide application times. In both experiments, two treatments, benefin (Balan) and pendimethalin (Prowl H₂O) were applied preplant incorporated (PPI) and all other treatments were preemergence applications where irrigation was used to incorporate or move the herbicide into the soil. In experiment I, a temporary sprinkler irrigation system was installed after the crop was planted. Two rates of the herbicides pendimethalin (Prowl H₂O), oxyfluorfen (GoalTender), flumioxazin (Chateau), metolochlor (Dual Magnum), bensulide (Prefar), and pronamide (Kerb) were applied using a CO₂-pressurized, backpack sprayer in both experiments. In Experiment I, after the first set of herbicide treatments was sprayed, the field was sprinkler irrigated to incorporate the herbicide and initiate crop germination. A second and third set of treatments was applied at about 1 week intervals after planting when the soil surfaced dried out and the field were sprinkler irrigated again after the applications. Experiment II included the same herbicides as experiment I, but they were applied preemergence only once after planting and the field was flood irrigated to incorporate the herbicides and initiate crop germination. Data collected included population densities, visual injury ratings, and seed yield.

Population densities in Experiment I (sprinklers) were 561 plants/m² in the untreated control, and in the Balan PPI and Prowl H₂O PPI treatments were 185 and 291 plants/m², respectively. The Prowl H₂0, GoalTender, and Chateau treatments almost completely eliminated lesquerella emergence when the herbicides were applied before the first or second sprinkler irrigation, but crop emergence was normal when the herbicides were applied before the third sprinkler irrigation. The other herbicides had more complicated injury patterns, whereas Prefar was relatively safe. The flood-irrigated Experiment II results were similar to Experiment I.

Herbicide tolerance in lesquerella is limited and additional research is needed to develop weed management programs that can be utilized by growers.

Klamath Basin Research & Extension Center, Oregon St. Univ., Klamath Falls, OR 97603, USA

The nationwide search for renewable, non-imported sources of energy has led to increased use of agricultural sources of oil to make biodiesel for fuel. We found no evidence of oilseed-to-biodiesel research or commercialization efforts in the arid south central Oregon plateau, including the Klamath Basin, before 2005. Much of this region has irrigation water available, and oilseed crops that are suited to a cooler climate such as canola and industrial rapeseed (Brassica napus), mustards (Sinapsis alba and Brassica juncea), and camelina (Camelina sativa) seemed to have a possible fit with existing crops such as potatoes, grass and alfalfa hay, and small grains. Despite the lack of local research and experience, a local farmer partnership built a 3.8 M liter per year biodiesel production facility in 2006, hoping to contract local oilseed production, while using geothermal heat for some of their energy needs.

The objective of this preliminary study was to evaluate the seed yield potential of several public and private varieties of spring-planted canola, mustard, and camelina over a range of Klamath basin growing conditions.

In spring 2006, we planted six canola varieties, one industrial rapeseed variety, and two mustard varieties at two locations. One was an upland mineral soil; the other was a high organic matter lake bottom soil. The trial was fertilized and irrigated uniformly at each location. In fall 2006, we planted six canola varieties at the mineral soil site to evaluate winter-hardiness. In spring 2007, we planted a variety trial on the mineral soil including 15 canola, two rapeseed, two mustard, and one camelina varieties. This trial was laid out in a way that allowed all varieties to be tested under two levels of irrigation to evaluate the response to reduced moisture availability. Both areas were fertilized uniformly. In spring 2007, we also planted a simpler trial of replicated canola and camelina strips on the high organic matter soil. The plots were swathed or pushed as the seedpods began to approach maturity, and were threshed with a Hege plot combine. Seed was cleaned and weighed, but oil analysis was not done.

In the spring 2006 trial, despite greater than expected weed pressure, canola seed yields ranged from 1570 to 2550 kg/ha, with a mean of 2090 kg/ha. The two mustard varieties had yields of 2250 and 2080 kg/ha. The fall-planted 2006 trial did not survive a period of very cold temperatures with no snow cover in December. The 2007 spring-planted trials grew well and plants were larger and appeared to have more seedpods in the areas receiving greater irrigation. The camelina matured earlier than almost all canola varieties. It appears that canola and camelina both respond to supplemental irrigation in this climate, although camelina may be better suited to conditions of low moisture availability.

Further details of the 2007 trial, along with an update on the local commercial biodiesel production facility, will be discussed. Ongoing research, including the effects of multiple fall planting dates on winter survival and seed yield of canola and camelina, will also be discussed.

Bio-based fuels such as “bio-diesel” are limited due to raw material costs. Over 80% of biodiesel manufacturing costs today are from purchase of increasingly expensive soybean and canola oil feedstocks. Low input costs of crops such as camelina (Camelina sativa L.) offer a very low cost alternative material for use in biodiesel manufacture. However, having a low cost material is only a part of the issue. Production volume must also be established in order for camelina to be used as a supplement or replacement for the more common feedstock oils. Camelina is also being developed as a nutraceutical oil as a replacement for the less stable flax oil industry.

The study involved developing a camelina production system suitable for growers to produce 20,000 hectares of camelina in 2007. To complicate this, camelina would have to compete for land in a year when wheat prices are at their highest in 30 years.

Producer meetings were scheduled from February through March 2007 in rural Montana. Production contracts were provided and production systems explained. Contracts were offered with a signing bonus making the crop price to the grower at $0.095-0.10/lb ($0.24-0.25/kg).

Commercial production of camelina increased by 100 fold using a system of advertising, grower meeting, and government research. Growers were able to deliver to elevators or railcars. Concerns were basically weed control, costs of production, and speed of harvest. In general, growers were satisfied with camelina as a rotational crop.

Camelina does provide a reasonable alternative crop for the wheat production areas of the western United States. Production is expected to increase to possibly 0.5 million hectares in 2008 and 1.5 to 3 million hectares in 2009.

University of Nevada, Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Reno, NV 89557, USA

The Small Rubber Particle Protein (SRPP) is an acidic low molecular weight protein that is abundant in the latex of the rubber producing plant species Taraxacum kok-saghyz (Russian dandelion). SRPPs are tightly associated with the surface of cytosolic vesicles known as rubber particles (RP), which represent the site of de novo rubber biosynthesis and sequestration. While the role of SRPPs in rubber biosynthesis is unclear, it has been reported that the addition of recombinant SRPP to in vitro rubber synthase assays significantly increases the rate of isopentenyl pyrophosphate incorporation into rubber. These results suggest that SRPP is either an ancillary protein that accentuates rubber synthase activity or an actual component of the rubber synthase complex.

Due to its putative importance to rubber biosynthesis, we have set out to characterize the SRPP gene family in Russian dandelion. We have identified three unique cDNA clones that correspond to the major RP localized SRPPs. The temporal pattern of mRNA and protein accumulation of each SRPP isozyme corresponds directly with the pattern of rubber accumulation in Russian dandelion. To obtain in vivo evidence for SRPPs role in rubber biosynthesis, we have generated transgenic Russian dandelion lines with increased and decreased SRPP levels. We are in the process of analyzing these transgenic lines for changes in SRPP content, rubber transferase activity, rubber yield, and polymer length.

Commercial production of guayule for latex production presents quite different logistical challenges than small-scale field trials. It is necessary to produce high-yielding shrub on a consistent basis over a range of field types and growers, and also to protect the shrub from dehydration post-harvest before processing. These issues are complicated by the changing morphology of the plant throughout the year and potentially by intrinsic differences among guayule lines.

In this study, several commercial guayule fields in different parts of Arizona were monitored over time following the first winter after stand establishment. In addition to latex yield and water content (and its impact on latex yield), we measured the percentages of (1) the bark (rubber-producing tissue) from different stem diameters, (2) leaf percentage, (3) plant size (height and width), and (4) plant age, in different lines, to determine the plant characteristics that had the most impact on processing variables and latex yield.

The amount of bark was generally inversely correlated with stem diameter, and the proportion of leaves was highest in the spring and summer months. Plant growth continued throughout the year except for the winter dormancy period. The most critical factor affecting latex yield, in this study, was the water content of the shrub at the time of harvest, with excellent results up to 11.8% latex (dry weight basis) being observed in shrub from well maintained fields. The data indicate that a water content of >40% at harvest is necessary for good processing results. However, we also have demonstrated that shrubs with as low as a 30% water content can be re-irrigated and then harvested once their water content has risen to 40% without adverse effect. Shrubs that have dropped to below 30% water content suffer irreversible latex loss (mainly thorough in situ coagulation) and appear to require another winter rubber production season in the field to generate acceptable latex yields.

Field monitoring is continuing indefinitely, as well as extensive post-harvest studies to determine the best pragmatic methods for protecting latex yields during transportation to the processing plant under different weather conditions throughout the year. These studies assist us to improve agronomic practices, determine quality parameters for growers, and provide the essential underpinning for the design of transportation and staging equipment before processing.

²USDA, ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ 85238, USA

Native guayule populations are scattered throughout 300,000 km² of rangeland in the Chihuahuan Desert and surrounding regions. The only native indigenous U.S. stands occur in the Trans Pecos region of southwestern Texas, and represent the most northern extension of the plant’s habitat. Maximum air temperatures of over 38^oC are frequent, and minimum temperatures of -23^oC have been recorded.

The objective of our study was to determine whether guayule production could be successful further north on the Southern High Plains near Plainview, TX.

Seed used in the experiment included four released lines, AZ-1, AZ-2, AZ-3, and AZ-4; a released USDA cultivar (11591); and three unreleased breeding lines, N9-3, N6-5, and N13-1. Seeds were planted 14 March 2006, in the greenhouse at the Texas A&M University Agricultural Research Station near Pecos. Guayule seedlings were transplanted on 18 May 2006, at the Texas A&M University Agricultural Research Station at Plainview. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replications. Plots were single rows (each containing 18 plants of each line) spaced 1 m apart and 6 m long. Plant height was measured 7 November 2006 and 6 June 2007. Guayule cold damage was estimated June 6, 2007, using the following index: (1) no damage, (2) slight – injury of terminals to 6 cm, (3) moderate – 2/3 of plant volume injured, (4) severe – all aerial portions killed but resprouting, and (5) complete – beyond recovery with no regrowth.

Plant height measured on 7 November 2006, varied from 31 cm for 11591 to 56 cm for AZ-1. Only one line had increased height measured on 6 June 2007. The 11591 had increased from 31 to 38 cm. Line N6-5 remained the same, whereas all other lines decreased in height. The cold damage index ranged from 1.2 in line 11591 to 3.8 in line AZ-1. The maximum and minimum air temperatures recorded during the study were 38^oC and -14^oC, respectively.

Line 11591 had the least cold damage and holds promise for establishment and rubber production on the Southern High Plains. Guayule grown here will not produce as much biomass as those cultivated in the Southwest, but certain production criteria may make the Plains an additional production site: annual rainfall averages 46 cm, irrigation water salinity is less than 1 E.C. and is pumped from only 90 m, and center pivot irrigation is available for establishing guayule by direct-seeding.

²USDA-ARS, U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ 85238, USA

Natural rubber, biosynthesized cis-1, 4-polyisoprene, is the largest single volume elastomer in commerce, at about 9 million tons sold globally per year. It is a strategic raw material used in thousands of applications that is critically in medical devices, personal protective equipment, and aircraft tires. Almost all natural rubber used in the United States is imported from Hevea brasiliensis rubber tree plantations of Asia and Africa. Natural rubber latex prices are increasing. A 3-million-ton shortage has been predicted over the next 10 to 15 years, driven primarily by Asian utilization.

Guayule (Parthenium argentatum), a woody desert shrub indigenous to the southwestern USA, produces high molecular weight cis-1, 4-polyisoprene, and has entered the commercial arena as an alternative latex material for the manufacture of medical devices safe for people suffering from Type I IgE-mediated Hevea latex allergies. Cultivation of guayule for latex production provides the favourable economics to support commercialization; however, increasing rubber biosynthesis in guayule could have a major impact on sustainability of this new industrial crop.

Overexpression of key metabolic pathway genes in Agrobacterium-mediated transformed guayule has been successful, but to date no studies have confirmed an increase in rubber production. A major hurdle to progress in the application of biotechnology is the time required to assess phenotypes. Confirmation of gene expression does not guarantee an increase in any single metabolite in the complex isoprenoid pathway. Changes in rubber production for field-grown plants, the true test of efficacy, require 1 to 2 years to assess.

The objective of our work was to determine whether reproducible measurements of rubber and resin production could be made in plants less than one year old grown in a laboratory or greenhouse environment.

Young plant tissues were extracted with acetone and cyclohexane to remove the resin and rubber residues, respectively. Extracts were quantified by gravimetry for both fractions. Dried cyclohexane fractions were re-solubilized in THF and tested by HPLC against rubber mass standards and polystyrene molecular weight standards. Results indicate sufficiently high levels of resins in three-month-old plants to be quantified by gravimetry; rubber could also be detected in these plants by SEC-MALLS. Differences between control and genetically modified plants suggest the method may be useful in early detection of the efficacy of metabolic engineering of rubber in guayule.

Commercialization of guayule for producing latex for medical products and other uses is underway. As commercialization reaches full scale, the liquid waste stream from latex extraction will potentially become an increasing problem. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the properties of the liquid waste stream after latex extraction and determine whether any or all of the waste liquid could be recycled for latex extraction before disposal.

Waste liquid was collected from three waste stream sources in a latex extraction facility. Currently, wastes from all three sources are discharged from the facility. Each of the three sources was analyzed for Na, K, Ca, Mg, SAR, and pH. Based on these analyses, six treatments were developed for recycling two of the waste streams. Treatment 1 was a control using 100% original/new antioxidant solution for each extraction. Treatment 2 was a mixture of 70% original and 30% waste stream #3. Treatment 3 was a mixture of 50% original, 30% waste stream #3, and 20% waste stream #2. Treatment 4 was a mixture of 20% original, 30% waste stream #3, and 50% waste stream #2. Treatment 5 was 100% waste stream #2. Treatment 6 was 100% waste stream #3. All mixtures are based on the volume percent of the final mixture. After the mixtures for the treatments were made, each was analyzed for Na, K, Ca, Mg, SAR, C, N, and pH. The treatments were used as the antioxidant solution in the laboratory latex extraction process of freshly chipped guayule shrub. Each treatment was replicated four times in a completely randomized design. Following latex extraction, the homogenate from each sample was analyzed for Na, K, Ca, Mg, SAR, EC, C, and N. The total latex extracted was also determined.

Results showed that using any of the treatments to recycle waste liquid resulted in a lower SAR of the waste being discharged (26.95 to 10.5). The N content of the waste liquid averaged about 0.2% and could be recaptured as fertilizer. The K values were also high (500-600 ppm), indicating that guayule probably has a high K requirement and may require extra K fertilizer especially where soil tests are low in K. The solids in the waste stream and the obnoxious odor characteristic of the waste liquid could be overcome by lowering the pH of the waste liquid from over 10 to less than 7. If this were done with phosphoric acid, then the waste solids would be high in N, P, and K and could be an acceptable fertilizer for plant use. The best treatment for latex extraction was Treatment 4 with an increase of 2.4x the amount of latex extracted than the control (Treatment 1). This increase is probably due to recovery of latex from the waste liquid rather than increased extraction from the shrub as indicated by similar changes in SAR values between the treatments.

The waste liquid obtained during latex extraction can be recycled for latex extraction, thus reducing the amount of waste liquid discharged by about 50%. The waste that is discharged should be of value for use as a fertilizer.

Katrina Cornish¹, Jali L. Williams¹, Melissa Reeder², Valerie H. Teetor³, and Dennis T. Ray³

³Division of Horticultural and Crop Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 8572, USA

Guayulins are a major terpenoid component in guayule, Guayulin A (cinnamic acid ester) making up 1 to 10% of the resin fraction. The compound is suggested as being a contact sensitizer (possibly able to cause Type IV allergies) because of reactions it appeared to induce in guinea pig in an early study. Guayule latex is under development as the base material for various medical devices because it is safe for humans suffering from Type I Hevea latex allergy. Thus, it was necessary to determine the levels of guayulin in purified latex, determine the levels needed to induce irritation and/or sensitization, and to reduce the levels in latex to well below an active concentration should it prove necessary.

Guayule resin and guayulin A were supplied to MB Research Laboratories, for evaluation using the localized lymph node assay (LLNA) in mice. Resin (2.5, 5, and 10%), guayulin A (0.1, 0.25, and 0.5%), and resin mixed with additional guayulin A (5% resin + 0.5% guayulin A) was evaluated. The resin mixtures containing 1.54% guayulin A and 0.27% guayulin B (anisic acid ester) and additional guayulin A were used to assess possible adjuvant effects of the resin components on the irritation/sensitization ability of guayulin A. In addition, the levels of guayulin A and B in purified latex were assayed by HPLC and the effect of pH on guayulin degradation through hydrolysis (and concomitant appearance of degradation products) was determined. In a separate study, guayule latex examination glove films were tested in an FDA-required nine-week Repeated Patch Dermal Guinea Pig Sensitization Test (Buehler method modified for medical devices, and ISO 10993-10 2002, “Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices, Part 10, Tests for Irritation and Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity”), performed by AppTec Laboratory Services, St Paul, MN, USA.

Even at the highest concentrations used, no irritation or sensitization was observed in the mouse LLNA, although all mice in the positive control group strongly reacted. The pH level of commercially available guayule latex, nominally pH 12.0, is sufficient to reduce the concentration of guayulin A by 73% from an average of 0.22% to 0.06% (g/g wet latex). In addition, the guayule latex examination glove films did not cause sensitization or irritation in the Repeated Patch Dermal Guinea Pig Sensitization Test guinea pig trial, and were classified as acceptable in regard to dermal sensitization.

In conclusion, it seems extremely unlikely that guayule latex products will cause sensitization due to the presence of guayulins co-purified with the latex.

LONG-TERM PRESERVATION OF NEW INDUSTRIAL CROP GERMPLASM AT THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR GENETIC RESOURCES PRESERVATION

National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation, USDA-ARS, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA

The Cropdatabase of the New Crops Crop Germplasm Committee within the Germplasm Resource Information System (GRIN) lists 118 species in 42 genera as having potential uses as industrial crops (http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/cgc_reports/newcrops2.htm). It is challenging to choose an appropriate long-term storage conditions for the new industrial crops due to the variety and diverse chemical composition of seeds and the fact that optimal seed storage conditions have not been described for these crops. In most cases, because of their ‘new crop’ status, limited research resources have been devoted to preserving these crops. The National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation (NCGRP) is a storage site for base collections of all accessions in the USDA, ARS, National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS). The base collections serve as a back up for the 475,000 accessions preserved in the NPGS. One goal of the NCGRP is to back up 100% of the NPGS accessions. At present, only about 78% of the accessions are stored at the NCGRP.

The purpose of this study was to review the back up storage status of the new industrial crops germplasm, to identify species that are not backed up at the NCGRP, and to raise awareness of the germplasm collections lacking information on long-term seed storage techniques. Data used in this study were obtained from the GRIN database.

Of the new industrial crops, 92% of the accessions are in long-term storage at the NCGRP. Ten of the 42 genera (23%) have all their accessions backed up at the Center, yet 6% of the genera (Agave, Dimorphoteca, Hesperaloe, Panax, Physaria, Salicornia, and Salvia) have no backup seed samples at the NCGRP or any other site. Of the remaining genera, a relatively small fraction (10%), which represents over 60% of the species listed as new industrial crops (71 species) have <55% of their accessions in the long-term storage. The majority of the collections in long-term storage at the NCGRP are stored at -18^oC (67.9%); the remaining collections (seed or shoot tips) are stored in liquid nitrogen (24.2%) with the exception of a few Cuphea sp. accessions being stored in 4^oC. Of particular interest is that seeds of some high oil containing accessions in the genera of Lesquerella, Limnanthes, or Simmondsia are stored in liquid nitrogen or -18^oC. This is believed to be the optimal storage conditions at the time the germplasm was backed up.Recent research has suggested that these storage conditions for high oil seed may not be optimal. Research is also needed in the areas of defining germination testing procedures for these crops for monitoring seed viability in storage.

To secure these valuable genetic resources for future improvement and cultivar development, studies on conditions promoting seed longevity in storage as well as establishing procedures and frequency of viability monitoring are needed.

Jung-Tae Kim¹, Choon-ki Lee¹, Hwa-Young Heo¹, Sun-Lim Kim¹, Eung-Gi Jeong¹,

Wheat seed color related pigments and bioactive compounds were separated from black, blue, and red wheat seeds to evaluate their potential as commercially available functi

STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES

Quality assessment of hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa) calyces from Senegal

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SEED DEVELOPMENT

OF CUPHEA PSR23

Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile