Poster Session

Plenary Session

Meadowfoam

Kenaf

General Crops

Jojoba

Guayule & Natural Rubber

Oilseeds

Epoxy Oilseeds

High Erucic Crops

POSTER SESSION

The epoxy oil produced by Vernonia galamensis is of interest to industry for paints and metal coatings. This oil contains an unusually high percentage of free fatty acids (FFA) which are likely generated when oil is subjected to seed lipase activity. Oil quality is diminished by the presence of these FFA for both chemical characteristics and the capacity for storage.

A method has been developed to quantify FFA in vernonia oil. Using solid phase extraction(SPE) columns, FFA are separated from the oil fraction. FFA are quantified using gas chromatography(GC). The remaining oil fraction is used to assess oil quality (i.e. percentage trivernolin) also by GC. Repeated analysis has demonstrated that this method is reliable, efficient and repeatable.

Our data shows that these lipase enzymes act both before and after the seed flaking process necessary for oil extraction. Preliminary measurements also indicate adequate variability of this trait both between and within our breeding lines for use in our breeding program.

Epoxides made from unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters or plant oils (especially soybean oil) are used as plasticizers and stabilizers for PVC on industrial scale. By hydrolytic epoxide ring-opening vicinal diols and polyols are accessible, that can be applied as starting materials for polurethanes. Using the system CH₃ReO₃/H₂O₂/tert-butanol epoxidation as well as direct hydroxylation - depending on reaction conditions - could be achieved.

At room temperature oleic acid methylester was epoxidized quantitatively by 30 % H₂O₂. The addition of 2,2-bipyridine prevents the ring-opening of the epoxide and enables a distinct acceleration of the reaction. Under the same conditions high oleic sunflower oil (85 % oleic acid), linseed oil and those fatty acid methyl esters, that can be obtained by interesterification with methanol (56 % linolenic, 15 % linoleic and 21 % oleic acid methyl ester), were epoxidized quantitatively, too.

At a slightly elevated temperature (50°C) and without 2,2-bipyridine, vicinal diols and polyols were formed. Thus oleic acid methylester was converted to 9,10-dihydroxystearic acid methyl ester and high oleic sunflower oil resulted in a hydroxylated triacylglycerol with 6 hydroxyl groups. The reaction of linseed oil and linseed oil fatty acid esters led also to polyhydroxylated products. Because of an intramolecular cyclisation of epoxy-diol intermediates to tetrahydofuran derivatives, the amount of hydroxyl groups in a given molecule was lower than predicted by theory. Linseed oil for example was oxidized to a polyhydroxylated triacylglycerol with 8 hydroxyl groups, whereas 14 hydroxyl groups would be theoretically possible.

Oil flax, after seed harvesting, leaves a straw with high C/N relationship. Fiber of less quality than textile flax can be obtained from this straw, but it is useful for bags, filling material, for cigarettes and paper making, etc.

In this crop, without water and N shortage, the first management factor for dry matter production is the sowing date, because changes in dates make the plants to grow and develop in different climates with variation in the temperature, photoperiod and vernalization regimes.

Thirteen sowing dates were made in 34° 35’ S, 58° 29’ W and 25 m (o.s.l.). These sowing dates were from autumn until spring with subplot of vernalized and not vernalized seeds. Three argentine varieties were sown: Areco, Salto and Rojas. The straw production was assessed through the averaged main stem height of plants and diameter, and number of ramifications in dry plants, after seed harvesting. Ramifications were divided into: a) Reproductive, b) Non reproductive long, and c) Non reproductive short.

The latter the sowing date the smaller the main stem height and diameter of main stem in the 3 varieties. Height varied from 100 cm in the first sowing until 20 cm for the last. The diameter varied from 1.9 cm to 0.8 cm. This trend accompanied the decrease of duration of emergence-first flowering period, where the temperature available affected the development. Vernalization only gave differences among treatments in autumn sowings.

Photoperiod effect was studied by analyzing this period in thermal time (TT), in vernalized plants. Photoperiod acted in a similar way as temperature; the delay in sowing date reduced TT. The environment (thermal and photoperiod) regulated the height and diameter of main stem through changes in development.

Vernalization did not show important effects on height and diameter but did show influence on the number of ramifications. Reproductive ramifications were more in the 13 sowings and in the 3 varieties. Non reproductive long and short ones had a similar behavior. Vernalization influenced development only in the very early and the latest sowings but affected the growth ramifications in all the sowing dates.

Crotalaria juncea is an annual crop that provides textile fiber similar to Corchorus sp.. Variations in stem length (from 2m to 4m) have been observed at different sowing dates and latitudes, for the same variety. The different vegetative stage duration and stem length has generated the following question: Do this plants possess a long juvenile period (JP) with a little photoperiodical influence or a short JP with greater photoperiodical influence?

To begin the species characterization (using a Hawaiian variety) 3 sowing dates were made at Buenos Aires (BS AS)(34° 35’ S, 58° 29’ W, and 25 m. o.s.l.). Emergence dates were: 10/14/96, 11/24/96 and 1/1/97. One sowing (2/2/97) was made in Costa Rica (10° 02’ N, 84° 10’ W and 1060 m. o. s.l.). The experimental design was similar in both countries; complementary irrigations were made in BS AS and Costa Rica, BS AS soil was fertilized with N (because the nodulation was not efficient). In BS AS, on 1° and 2° dates, plant stands were poor; nevertheless, dates of emergence and 50% of flowering were recorded in both countries. In Costa Rica fenometric observations were also made.

Plants evidenced a quantitative short day response, since flowering dates for 1° and 2° sowing dates in BS AS was 3/10/97, and 3/20/97 for the 3° date; being thermal time accumulated until flowering (using a base temperature of 10°C): 1990 °Cd, 1580 °Cd and 1150 °Cd (respectively) and 738°Cd in Costa Rica, so a photoperiod effect is clear. Photoperiod was always short in Costa Rica so, the plants were soon induced to flowering (4/4/97) and achieved a mean height of 94 cm. In BS AS, stem length values were only valid for the 3º date; the mean height was 150 cm. For the 1° date the few plants were 270 cm. height; some of those plants had a little flow of flowers on 12/2/96 but thereinafter they aborted and plants blossomed in March.

Photoperiod at emergence for the first date was 13.88 hs. while for the 2° and the 3° dates it was greater than 15 hs.. By the flowering stage the photoperiod was about 13 hs. for all the sowing dates. Costa Rica’s emergence photoperiod was 12.45 hs. and in flowering: 13 hs.. The critical photoperiod is around 13 hs.

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is an annual crop whose stems are a potential source for paper pulp. With the objective of assessing the optimum population for the maximum biomass production, an experiment was carried out at the Faculty of Agronomy experimental field in Buenos Aires, Argentina (34° 36’ lat S, 58° 29’ long W and 25 mosl).

Two cultivars Everglades 41 and Tainung 2 and eight population densities from isolated plants to 100 plants/m² in plots of four rows were seeded in a Complete Randomized Block Design. Plants were harvested at ground level at the beginning of flowering. The height, diameter, biomass, and percent of bast and core fibre were recorded in individuals plants; these are important parameters that determine both yield and quality of the harvested product.

The optimal density changed with genotypes being 20-40 pl/m² for Tainung 2 and 40-60 pl/m² for Everglades 41. Tainung 2 was the cultivar with greatest yield. The height of stems did not change with different densities and only slight differences were detected between genotypes, being Tai2 the tallest. The stem diameter decreased with the highest plant population determining an easier harvest, without any difference between cultivars. Bast fibre percent was superior at higher densities resulting in a raw material of better industrial characteristics for paper making.

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) technical viability as a resource of cellulose raw material for different European industrial sectors has been tested during the 90's. However, the species ecological requirements have limited its cultivation to South Europe countries. It is Andalucía, the southern most region of Spain, where the greatest productive potential for growing kenaf can be expected.

From the end of the 80’s, different tests have been carried out with the kenaf, but since 1994, studies have focused on the evaluation from the productive point of view, of cultivars, whose sewing seed multiplication is usual in Europe, and on the thorough examination of different aspects (effect of the harvest time, optimum irrigation doses) concerning the optimization of the crop under Andalusian conditions.

The evaluated materials belong to cultivars of different earliness cycles, although results tend to give a greatest productive potential to cultivars of latest cycles (from 20,000 to 32,000 kg/ha) in relation to earliest cultivars (from 8,000 to 19,000 kg/ha). There are other data as the values of indexes related to long fiber content of plants of kenaf produced (bark content, bark index) that corroborate the optimum Andalusian conditions from growing kenaf.

Tests concerning the optimum irrigation doses carried out during the first years showed a tendency to a high consumption of water, which made difficult the crop expansion because it would depend largely on a scarce resource. However, during the last year, it has been proved that with acceptable doses which are usual for other traditional crops of the region, kenaf has showed very high yields, similar to those obtained with irrigation doses which are completely out of proportion outside the experimental field.

The effect of the crop harvest time is very important, because the tendency, in Andalucía in particular and in Europe, in general, is to do it at the end of the vegetative cycle which means not further than October. The test objectives were to be able to determine that if they were harvested in an earlier period than the natural cycle, the yields would be similar to those harvested in the optimum date, so that in this way the necessary conditions for the kenaf straw storage (dryness) could be assured before the autumn rains. The results prove the viability of harvesting a fortnight before the natural time, with no loss of yields or quality.

 The National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research in Peoria, Illinois, United States of America is part of the Agricultural Research Service, the research arm of the United States Department of Agriculture. There are 10 research units at NCAUR and one of them is the New Crops Research Unit (NCR). The mission of the NCR is to develop new industrial products from meadowfoam, lesquerella, jojoba, crambe, milkweed, cuphea, Euphorbia lagascae, vernonia or other potential new crops; to solve seed processing or product quality problems; and to develop new methods to evaluate germplasm and breeding lines for the proposed crops in collaborative programs with plant scientists. NC’s four permanent research scientists and support staff work closely with our customers through Cooperative Research and Development Agreements (CRADA’s), confidentiality agreements and public reports. The NC progress report and group information is displayed on the Internet at www.ncaur.usda.gov/nc/nchome.html. This includes a searchable database of the composition of oilseeds collected over 38 years. The poster describes the role of the NC team in new crops development.

A lot of concern has been growing about plant genetic erosion in agriculture. More and more people think that the problem is a multi-agent one. Part of the problem stems from new technological developments that have changed the nature of the debate and caused a need for the redefinition of the role of the industrial sector. Existing agents set up to deal with these issues, such as plant protection systems, government intervention, and network conservation of plant genetic resources have not been able to reduce genetic erosion satisfactorily.

Debates have been taking place in different international forums. Among them, the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture of FAO, the Trade Related Intellectual Protection Systems within the World Trade Organization, the Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, and the Commission on Biodiversity.

The main proposal of this paper is to discuss the different positions of the actors involved, taking into consideration the goal of sustainable development of agricultural systems. The paper also discusses the point of view of the agricultural sector in a country such as Mexico where the majority of the farms are still small-size production units. It also deals with Farmer’s Rights and the ethical and political implications of current philosophies towards intellectual propriety systems.

Recommendations are made about reducing genetic erosion in agriculture: More analytical studies need to be done about the implications of orthodox intellectual property systems on plant genetic resources.

A new ‘sui generis’ system needs to be developed that deals with agricultural producers of all levels and goes against trends towards monopolization of the seed industry.

Borago officinalis is an important source of g-linolenic acid used in several medicinal applications. Its flowering responses to environmental factors is not readily understood. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of temperature and photoperiod on development and flowering. Field experiments of white-flowered B. officinalis were established in Buenos Aires, Argentina (34° 35’ S, 58° 29’ W) during three consecutive years. The first year comprised 3 sowing dates each from June to October. On the third year three late season planting dates were chosen from September to November. Thermal time was used to characterized the flowering response. he selected model was that of Summerfield et al (1989) using T (mean air temperature of the period emergence-flowering) and P (mean photoperiod).

The best fitting equation was 1/d = -0.029 + (-0.00234 × T) + (0.0057 × P), indicating a clear response to long days. The three late season planting dates did not fit into this model. the plants under these conditions accumulated about three times more biomass than the plants in previous experiments and they flowered poorly and unevenly. This confirms the qualitative-type of response that this species has to photoperiod. Nitrogen availability was higher for these third-year experiments than for the two previous years. Although N is considered a secondary factor in the regulation of flowering phenology its effects should be considered in this experiment. Vernalization was not a critical factor influencing flowering in Borago officinalis.

Guayule produces a high quality hypoallergenic latex that is of interest to the medical industry. Toward the end of understanding latex production and finding higher yielding plants, we have screened guayule germplasm lines for latex production over the past two years. We have previously reported fresh weight, dry weight, percent dry weight, percent latex and latex yield in lines O16-1 and G7-11 (newly released germplasm line AZ-2) for five stem diameter classes. From this work we have shown that for these two lines at a single harvest, 65% of the fresh weight, 77% of the dry weight, and 76% of the latex were found in branches of diameters 2.0 to 10.0 mm. This suggested to us that hedging might be the most economical harvesting method for latex.

We also found and have reported that percent latex in the 2.0 to 10.0 mm diameter branches was highly correlated (0.93) with percent latex in the whole plant, and fresh weight, dry weight, and latex yield in the same sized branches were highly and positively correlated with latex yield for the entire plant. This suggested that these diameter branches could be harvested to estimate latex content and yield in the entire plant. We harvested these same sized branches every two weeks for lines G7-11 (now AZ-2), O16-1 and Cal-6 from December, 1995, through December, 1996. The three lines averaged about 2% latex in December, 1995, raising to a maximum of 10% in March 1996, and dropping to less than 1% in July 1996. From these data latex production certainly appears to be cyclical.

The biweekly harvests were discontinued at the end of March, 1997, due to lack of funds. However, over these three months the following new lines were evaluated: AZ-R1, AZ-R2, AZ-R3, C16-1 (newly released germplasm line AZ-1), G7-15 (newly released germplasm line AZ-3), N7-BK (newly released germplasm line AZ-4), N7-11 (newly released germplasm line AZ-5), P2-BK (newly released germplasm line AZ-6), P3-1, N576, 11591, P10-13, N565, G7-14, N9-5, C16-11, C16-2, C16-4, and G7-4. Although preliminary, these are the first latex data on most of these lines. Plants of line Cal-6 that were established by both direct-seeding and transplanting, were harvested six times from January through March, 1997. In January until the end of February, the latex content in the direct-seeded plants was lower than in the transplants. However, by March the latex content was essentially equal. Although interesting, because of the lack of data points and the small numbers of plants evaluated, these results may be nothing more than sampling error. Also of possible interest was that the same peak latex production observed in March 1996 was not reached in 1997 (by the time the harvests were terminated). The potential interesting aspect of these preliminary data is the potential role of environment (temperature and water) on latex production.

Crambe (Crambe abyssinica) belongs to the Mediterranean region and produces high content of erucic acid in its seed oil and has several potential industrial uses. In this study 12 accessions of crambe originated from four countries Sweden (4), Ethiopia (3), U.S.A. (3) and Israel (2) were evaluated in the Seed Technology Laboratory using three check varieties Brassica juncea (Japan), Brassica napus (Sweden) and Sinapis alba (Israel) which also manifests erucic acid in its seed oil. These 15 accessions were evaluated for seedling characters at two temperatures 20°C (T1) and 25°C (T2) with + 2°C separately. A random sample of ten well formed seeds of each accession were arranged in a row, embryos facing downwards on a wet germination paper. Another moistened germination paper was placed over this, so that the seeds were sandwiched between the two papers. These papers containing the seed were kept in an incubator maintaining a temperature of 20°C + 2°C and 25°C + 2°C for seven days. On eighth day morning five seedlings from each accession were randomly picked up for recording the data on hypocotyl and root lengths. The experiments T1 and T2 were conducted separately in a completely randomized block design with three replications and the data were statistically analyzed individually and combined.

The analysis of variance of each experiment and combined analysis showed significant differences among the genotypes for the hypocotyl and root lengths in T1 and T2 excepting hypocotyl length in T1. This reveals a considerable variability for hypocotyl and root lengths among the accessions at seedling stage. The interactions between accessions and temperatures were also significant for the two traits studied. The length of the hypocotyl in different accessions examined varied from 2.1 to 8.9 cm with a mean of 6.6 cm in T1 and 5.5 to 11 cm with an average of 8.1 cm in T2. The following accessions were identified for larger hypocotyl lengths, S. alba, 305283 and 384522 (7.9 to 8.8 cm) in T1 and 247310, 305283 and 326569 (9.2 to 9.6 cm) in T2. The hypocotyl lengths increased by 22.7% in T2 when compared to T1. This may be due to the effect of higher temperature. Generally accessions with longer hypocotyls produces a better seedling emergence in the field conditions. Tall varieties with longer hypocotyls might be favored for cultivation under deficit moisture to ensure uniform and appropriate population per unit area. The seedling root length varied from 6.1 to 15.8 cm with a mean of 11.2 cm in T1 and 5 to 17.6 cm with a mean of 11.3 cm in T2 and the accessions S. alba, 384522 and 305283 (13.9 to 14.5 cm) in T1 and V29, 384525 and 384522 (13.6 to 14.5 cm) in T2 manifested with longer root lengths. The performance of root length of the accessions were more or less similar in T1 and T2. The influence of higher temperature were not detected in seedling root lengths.

New process can provide 100% native vegetable source for the Personal Care and Cosmetic Industry to satisfy the need to replace animal sources with all vegetable sources.

The Protec process is a new and unique way of obtaining an extract, rich in native proteins that is water soluble and exhibiting biological activity. The Protec process can be used to provide high yields of concentrated proteins in an extract form which may be used directly in cosmetic compositions.

The Protec extract is obtained from Jojoba meal after the cold pressing process. The meal remaining after defatting jojoba seeds in a reactor-extractor is treated by extraction reagents in several stages: a) penetration into the meal, b) concentration of extraction products and c) separation from solid phase. The resulting extract requires no further concentration, purification or desalination to be included as a raw material into cosmetic compositions.

The Protec protein product is sufficiently concentrated (~5%), to be used as an additive or active ingredient in cosmetic formulations. The final forms of the extract may be either a) liquid form with ~5% concentration, b) concentrated liquid, ~20% concentration or c) powder form.

Several extragents are proposed, among them the group of known buffers. These are selected such that they retain enzyme activity of the obtained proteins. With buffer and condition variations we can obtain protein extracts characterized by catalase, peroxidase, phoshodiesterase, phospholipase activity, all of which are of interest to cosmetic applications. Furthermore, the Protec protein products obtained by this technology have significantly lowered the simmondsine content to levels of less than 1%.

Protec is completing the initial R&D stage of product development and will start pilot studies. Protec is currently operating as an independent company within the Mofet B’Yehuda Technological and Business Incubator in Israel. The initial R&D program has been sponsored by the Office of the Chief Scientist, Ministry of Industry and Trade, State of Israel. Joint Venture - Strategic Partner - Investment - Marketing inquiries invited.

Several species of lesquerella are currently under investigation for the production of hydroxy fatty acids. Among this, L. fendeleri seems to be the most promising for development. In its native environment this species is a winter annual. In southern Argentina, lesquerella could be tested as a summer annual. In this context understanding photoperiodic and temperature responses becomes important.

The objective of this study was to determine the influence of temperature and photoperiod on the duration of the stage emergence-flowering in Lesquerella fendleri. A field experiment was carried out in Buenos Aires, Argentina (34° 36’ S, 58° 29’ W) that included 8 seeding dates from March to November 1996 in a complete blocks design with 3 replicates. Each replicate consisted of a 6 5-m rows with a plant density of 1,000,000 pl/ha. The length of the period emergence-flowering (35-50 % of the plants with at least one flower open) was recorded. Thermal time was calculated using a base temperature of 0°C.

There were significative differences in both days and thermal time to flowering between seeding dates. The results suggest that temperature is the most important factor in determining the length of the emergence-flowering period and consequently the crop length in Lesquerella fendleri. There is also a response to photoperiod. We are currently evaluating this response but including the effect of vernalization, to separate both responses. Growth chamber experiments are needed to thoroughly separate temperature and photoperiodic responses.

Lesquerella species are presumed to be cross-pollinated largely by bees and flies. A preliminary study on Lesquerella gordonii reported that bagged flowers produced 0.1 seeds per fruit, whereas open-pollinated flowers produced 6.3 seeds per fruit. Experimental evaluation of different species of Lesquerella sp. has been made using framed cages for each plot in order to avoid pollination between species. Little is known, however, about the effect of cross-pollination between different species over seed production. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the efficiency of self and cross-pollination within and between species of Lesquerella sp. on seed production.

Plants of Lesquerella fendleri, L. grandiflora, L. gordonii and L. argyraea were grown in a pollinator free glasshouse and ten flowers per plant were manipulated by hand pollination. Three different treatments were established for each specie: a) Self pollination with pollen produced by the same plant, b) Cross pollination with pollen of other plants of the same specie and c) Cross pollination with pollen proceeding of another specie. Since flowering date differed between species, two pairs of species (L. grandiflora-L. gordonii and L. fendleri-L. argyraea) with similar flowering dates were selected for this purpose. Reproductive success (RS) was quantified as the product of the fruit/flower ratio (Fr/Fl) and the seed/ovule ratio (S/O).

In all the species studied, RS was higher when cross pollination within specie were made, ranging between 38% in L. fendleri and 80% in L. gordonii. Under self pollination, RS ranged between 0% in L. fendleri and 11% in L. argyraea, in accordance to previous reports suggesting that this genus is cross pollinated. When cross pollination was made with pollen proceeding from another species, however, RS was 0 in L. grandiflora, L. argyraea and L. fendleri, and only 6% in L. gordonii. The results obtained with the four species studied indicate that the probability of cross pollination among species of this genus is low, suggesting that physical barriers such as framed cages would not be necessary to prevent hybridization among species in contiguous field experiments.

A prerequisite for molecular genetic studies is, by definition, the ability to isolate DNA. In plant species with high content of polysaccharide and polyphenolic compounds, this basic requirement becomes a challenge. In these species, the carbohydrates co-precipitate with the nucleic acids forming large pellets, in which the DNA is trapped in gum, and is no longer retrievable. A species that exemplifies the problem is Lesquerella fendleri, a new industrial crop which has evoked interest for it’s unique oil and hydroxy fatty acid (lesquerolic acid). The difficulty to isolate DNA from this species was an impediment for applying new methods of molecular breeding to the improvement process. We are describing a novel DNA isolation method developed by the New-Crops group at U.S Water Conservation Lab in Phoenix. In this procedure, after breaking down the cell walls, the cell nuclei are being separated from the cytoplasmatic and intracellular fluids, by differential centrifugation in a viscous medium, this preparatory step, separates between the cellular compartments which contain the desired DNA, and the problematic carbohydrates. The DNA is then isolated from the nuclei without interference. High quality DNA was obtained and used successfully in various analyses.

Emasculation is one of the most costly and labor intensive components of hybrid seed production. The most efficient and effective substitute for emasculation is introduction of male sterility into elite germplasm. Therefore, a significant step toward commercialization of Lesquerella fendleri will be identifying genes and mechanisms responsible for genic and gene-cytoplasmatic male sterility. We have initiated a genetic search with the objective of identifying molecular markers diagnostic to male sterility. A sample of 20 plants, composed of ten male sterile plants, and 10 male fertile plants are used for the initial screening. Two molecular markers systems: Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Amplified Fragment Length polymorphism (AFLP) are used in search for markers that identify chromosomal segments associated with male sterility. Primers amplifying DNA segments known to be associated with male-sterile cytoplasm in other Brassicaea are applied as well. An up to date report of potentially diagnostic markers, as well as, a discussion of plausible male sterility mechanisms in L. fendleri will be presented.

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PLENARY SESSION

Mexico is a country where biological mega-diversity is matched with cultural diversity and history. Thus, there is a long tradition of use of natural products, especially as remedies for "every day" ailments.

However, this century's innovative tendencies have created an unprecedented scenario in which the use of patented medicines and of technological processes are slowly but effectively replacing traditional medicines, especially in urban areas. Interestingly enough, the active components of these new drugs, quite often are discovered though the study of traditional medicines, and then synthesized from natural products. That is why transnational pharmaceutical companies are now investing in conservation of tropical forests.

This loss of traditional knowledge leads us to propose a number of urgent actions to preserve the lore of our ancestors. Although natural products do not come only from plants. One such action is the creation of new herbaria in regions where they are lacking, as well as supporting the growth of those already existing.

Herbaria are non replaceable tools to identify potentially useful plants, especially medicinal ones. But natural products are not just medicines, they are also food, cosmetics, tints, textiles, natural pesticides, oils, scents, fibers, alcohol, rubber, etc.; neither are natural products exclusive to tropical forests, for they can be obtained from arid zones, temperate vegetation, mangroves, grasslands, and so on. This means that developing countries ought to consider the exploitation of natural products as a feasible way to achieve sustainable development.

This talk aims to show the development and perspectives of the Mexican industry based on natural products, and to analyze the progress of a field basic to our country's medicinal culture.

The development of non food applications of agromaterials has attracted a considerable and increasing interest in European industries and governments. In this, issues such as a sustainable society based on renewable resources, combined with environmentally sound processing and a responsible care with respect to waste stream management are very basic. To stimulate this development and implement potential applications in industrial practice several strategies have been followed.

Firstly, governmental organizations in Europe have initiated research programs to generate new outlets for agromaterials. Besides national programs in several European countries, especially the European Community has demonstrated a large commitment in this field. For more than 10 years research programs, acronymed ECLAIR, AIR and FAIR, targeted research and development of renewable resources based products. Projects eligible for funding under these programs typically included partners from several member states. Additionally, in most cases such projects dealt with complete production chains, from agriculture to end use, and required the active participation of industrial partners as well. Current discussions on a Fifth Framework Program, that will cover the R&D efforts over the period 1998 2002, will later this year lead to decisions on the particular focal points of this program.

Secondly, a number of non food applications of renewable resources have recently seen market introduction in Europe. These include some high volume markets, such as rapeseed methyl esters in biodiesel or organic solvents and flax fibers in the reinforcement of composites (such as car parts). Also some smaller volume markets are now being targeted, such as wheat protein binders in coatings and starches in various disposable consumer products.

Furthermore, to facilitate the introduction of agromaterials the European Community has opened up the possibility to use set aside acreage for the cultivation of non food crops, with accompanying agricultural subsidies.

United States agriculture produces over 12 billion pounds of soybean oil annually, and frequently carry-over exceeds 1 billion pounds. Only 300 million pounds of soybean oil are used in industrial applications. Non-food uses of soybean oil and other vegetable oils have grown little during the past 40 years. Although some markets have expanded or new ones added, other markets have been lost to competitive petroleum products. Development of new industrial products or commercial processes are objectives of continued research in both public and private sectors. Through these efforts vegetable oils should maintain or even add to their market share as non-renewable petroleum becomes more expensive.

Industrial applications include plasticizers, emulsifiers, surfactants, plastics, resins, lubricants, coatings, corrosion inhibitors, adhesives, cleaners, cosmetics, water repellants, and fuels. At the Oil Chemical Research Unit (ARS, USDA, NCAUR), we investigate and develop economically feasible new industrial products from soybean oil and thus, enhance its domestic and export market. Our principal effort focuses on modifying chemical and physical properties of soybean oil to enhance its use as an additive or as a major component of lubricants, surface coatings, printing inks, fuels and industrial chemicals. Approaches include both chemical and biological techniques to modify soybean oil or its constituents and introduce new functionalities. Up to date progress of the above technologies will be summarized.

The degradation of the ecological system and environment of the earth are getting to be increasingly serious problems. We must revise our socioeconomic system of mass production, mass consumption, and mass disposal based on the fossil resources and create a society that the primary industries, agriculture, forestry and fisheries, are flourishing as well as the secondary and tertiary industries (AFF). AFF in Japan, however, is in a slump due to internationalization of trade, and the reduction of tariff for AFF products. So as to promote AFF industries and activate rural communities, it is necessary to create new uses for AFF commodities. Under these circumstances, this project has been undertaken to develop technologies for conversion of AFF commodities to value added industrial products, fuels and new fiber products. The emphasis have also been put on the development of environmentally benign process which will be attained by using the functions of microorganisms and enzymes.

(1) Development of environmentally benign products from AFF commodities, (a) bio degradable plastics from starch, silk, and protein; (b) chemicals from wood and wood fiber; © engineered woods from under utilized woods; (d) bio energy (ethanol) from sugar beet and sweet sorghum. (2) Creation of new demand by development of value added products, (a) new chemicals such as pigment flavor, etc; (b) health foods such asl oligosaccharides, carotene, etc, © physiological active substances as cosmetics, medicine, etc., (d) new type foods such as allergy less soybean, fiber rich sweet potato, (e) special fine silk. (3) Environmentally benign crops (a) breeding of non pollen grasses; (b) plant solubilizing soil bound phosphate,(4) Development of activating system for rural AFF industry

 The last two decades have seen a startling increase in the establishment of new industrial oil seed crops. This list includes crambe, jojoba, and meadowfoam. Why have these crops seen sustained growth and economic viability and other proposed crops, such as dimorphethica, calendula, vernonia, cuphea, and lesquerella languished? The reasons for each are not all the same nor are they obvious. In order for a crop to have a future there are several important factors that must be present. Included in this list is sufficient agronomic yields and on farm profit, both a public sector and private sector champion, favorable statutory factors such as the environmental improvement, social pulls such as animal rights issues, etc. If the champions take advantage of favorable factors, progress towards sustained growth can be made and a new crop developed.

What is the role of government - the private sector? The attitude of protectionism posed by some new crop developers (and governments) is a pitfall that can be, in the long run, disastrous for the developer, and subsequently the crop. Realizing that agriculture is global in nature will go a long way in sustaining the crop’s development.

The problem with discussing new crops as one unit is that they are not one unit. Some produce material that already has a market, but are not developed agronomically and others can be grown with good yield but no market has been established for their unique materials. I will try to give my version of a future scenario for new crop development.

 México has a great diversity of plants growing in its different climatic regions. These plants have been used as food, medicine, source of construction and industrial materials, etc. In particular there are 1,028,055 km² of arid and semi arid lands from which several species are used in a limited commercial form. Industrialization and commercialization of raw materials from plants have had diverse degrees of development in our country. In some cases the installation of processing plants have been reached, but in others only the recollection of raw materials or partial semi processing is attained. Despite the effort of universities, research centers and government agencies there is only a moderate success in industrializing species from the mentioned regions, although there is an important international market.

In this work we make a review of the development in industrialization and commercialization attained by several semi arid species, trying to identify the possible causes that prevent to reach the degree of development accomplished by these species in other countries. The cases of study are such as guayule, zabila, candelilla, ixtle, jojoba oregano and nopal.

We obtained information about cropping/recollection activities, raw materials production, the possibility to develop other products (particularly with high aggregated value), the existence of industrial plants and technology is also documented. Besides, we identify the politics supporting the research and development activities. The role of private investment is also considered.

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MEADOWFOAM DIVISION

 Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.) oil is a source of novel unsaturated very long-chain fatty acids (20:1 D⁵, 22:1 D⁵, and 22:2 D⁵, 13), in addition to erucic acid (22:1 13). The steady growth of meadowfoam oil markets since 1993 has caused meadowfoam production to flourish in Oregon. New cultivars are needed to pace the growth of the industry and meet the demand for greater seed yields. Several experimental open-pollinated cultivars (OMF-69, 78, 86, 87, and 103) are presently being tested for commercial release. These honeybee-pollinated cultivars were developed by selecting for increased seed yield, oil content, and lodging resistance among half-sib families from strongly allogamous populations. Naturally self-pollinated progeny were discovered in wild populations of L. alba ssp. versicolor. Strongly autogamous lines were developed by directly selecting for self-pollination in these populations. Experimental self-pollinated cultivars are being developed by selecting among pedigreed inbred lines developed from crosses between allogamous and autogamous lines (L. alba ssp. alba x L. alba ssp. versicolor). Self-pollinated cultivars should boost profits by eliminating pollinator costs if they have seed yields on par with honeybee-pollinated cultivars. A genome map (x = 5) is being developed using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). DNA fingerprinting, genome mapping, and molecular breeding are aided by very high DNA marker polymorphism rates in this crop: 8 primer combinations produced 436 polymorphic AFLP bands between the parent inbred lines. The genome map is being used to map genes underlying agronomically important traits (fatty acid and oil content, flower morphology, self-pollination, seed yield, and lodging resistance). This work should shed light on the genetics of several important traits and speed the development of new cultivars by creating the basis for more precisely and efficiently introgressing genes from exotic to elite germplasm.

 Consequent to research conducted at Virginia State University's farm locate din Ettrick, Virginia indicating that meadowfoam can be grown in Virginia, two production fields were established during 1996/97 season. With support from Fanning Corporation, two farmers were contracted to produce 2.5 hectares each of meadowfoam. These fields were planted on December 12, 1996 with a grain drill with about 25 kg seed per hectare. The germination and stand establishment in both fields were excellent. Both fields received about 50 kg/ha nitrogen. The meadowfoam in both fields was in full bloom by May 9, 1997. Even though visual observations indicated that considerable numbers of pollinators were present in both fields, eight beehives were placed in each field to enhance pollen transfer. The meadowfoam is maturing satisfactorily. As of May 28, 1997, the developing seed had a moisture content of about 78 percent. We plan to harvest these fields when the seed moisture is about 42 percent. The yield levels and other details about this production effort will be presented and discussed. In addition, results of experiments being conducted at the research farm to determine optimum fertilizer rates and row spacings for meadowfoam production in Virginia will also be presented and discussed.

 Enzymes in raw oilseeds interact with seed components when cells are crushed during oil extraction processes. Proper cooking normally destroys these enzyme systems and leads to more easily refined crude oils and higher quality meals.

Meadowfoam (MF) seeds (e.g., Limnanthes alba) contain an active thioglucosidase, which interacts with m-methoxybenzyl glucosinolate to release m-methoxybenzylisothiocyanate, an unstable aglucon that readily liberates thiocyanate ion as a detectable product. There is potential for sulfur-containing products to chemically or thermally decompose during processing and deposit contaminants in the oil, and these may poison hydrogenation catalysts and/or cause odor problems. Thus, we sought cooking conditions that would destroy thioglucosidase during processing prior to oil extraction. Whole-seed inactivation, though more difficult than in flaked seed, is preferred, because enzyme/glucosinolate interactions in flakes are possible in flake transit or during initial phases of flake cooking.

We conducted laboratory experiments in which whole MF seeds sealed in screw-capped vials were moisture equilibrated (6-16%) before being heated at selected temperatures (180-230°F) for predetermined time intervals (15-60 min.). These "cooked" seeds were then air dried, ground in a coffee mill, and the meal slurried with pH 7 phosphate buffer. The slurried meals were then checked for glucose using a glucose sensitive TesTapeR procedure. A positive test (green color development in the initial yellow paper tape), immediately or slowly over time indicated that thioglucosidase was still active in the cooked seed meal. A desirable negative test showed that the particular combination of time, temperature and moisture was adequate for enzyme inactivation in the cooked seed. In our experiments, the effective levels of moisture, temperature and time during cooking to inactivate MF thioglucosidase were >10% moisture, >210°F, and 45-60 min. These results were confirmed in field experiments and resulted in high-quality oil.

 The unique fatty acid profile and consequent special properties of Meadowfoam seed oil and its derivatives have stimulated significant interest in several commercial areas. These include personal care products such as cosmetics and toiletries as well as industrial applications including lubricants and inks. Applications data will be presented for Meadowfoam seed oil and two of its derivatives, Meadowfoam estolides and silicone Meadowfoam esters.

 Crambe (Crambe abyssinica) and meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba) seedmeals are processing by-products of the oil extraction of the seeds. Both crambe and meadowfoam seed contain high levels of glucosinolates, sulfur-containing secondary plant compounds. Glucosinolates and their degradation products have limited the usefulness of the seedmeals as animal feed. Since some of the degradation products are similar to synthetic soil pesticides and are biologically active, the meals may be of benefit as soil amendments for alternatives to currently-available pesticides. We have shown that both seedmeals were phytotoxic to several plant species when added to soil at levels of 1% or more. 1-Cyano-2-hydroxy-3-butene (CHB) and (3-methoxyphenyl)acetonitrile (3-MPAN) were identified as the major phytotoxins from crambe and meadowfoam seedmeals, respectively. Both seedmeals were equally effective against Meloidogyne chitwoodi, a root-knot nematode species that blemishes potato tubers in the Northwestern states of the U.S. We suspect that CHB and 3-MPAN are primarily responsible for the toxicity of the seedmeals to nematodes. Presently, the utility of both seedmeals as environmentally-friendly nematicides is under investigation in the field.

 The poor oxidative stability of vegetable oils is one factor slowing the growth of vegetable oil markets in industrial applications. Consequently, there has been an increased effort to develop stable oils through the use of antioxidants. A relative new instrument for determining the oxidative stability of vegetable oils (OSI, Oxidative Stability Instrument) is now available. The OSI determines the oxidative stability of vegetable oils by measuring the conductivity change of a water solution as the volatile decomposition products produced from vegetable oil oxidative degradation dissolve in the solution. The OSI time (point of oxidative failure) is reported in hours at the point where a rapid increase in the conductivity occurs.

We have surveyed the oxidative stability of a range of vegetable oils and found that a developing new crop, meadowfoam (limnanthes alba) has a very high oxidative stability when compared to other vegetable oils. Unrefined meadowfoam oil has a high OSI time (110°C) of 246.9 hours when compared to other stable oils such as refined Jojoba oil, 31.4 hours and refined high oleic sunflower 49.8 hours. Refining of meadowfoam oil, however, greatly reduces its oxidative stability to 67.3 hours which is still higher than the other vegetable oils that were screened.

Binary mixtures of vegetable oils were also examined for oxidative stability. Of the binary oil systems that were studied meadowfoam had the most pronounced effect on jojoba oil by increasing the oxidative stability of jojoba oil by 40% with only 5% incorporation of unrefined meadowfoam oil. However, unrefined meadowfoam failed to improve the oxidative stability of refined soybean oil but did improve the oxidative stability of triolein (95%) greater than 21 fold.

The unusually high oxidative stability of meadowfoam oil could not be attributed to its tocopherol content (668 ppm tocopherol) nor its iodine value ( 93.0) when a relationship of oxidative stability versus iodine value and tocopherol content were compared to other oils.

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KENAF AND FIBERS DIVISION

The natural distribution of the Agavaceae and Nolinaceae families is limited to America. For Mexico we recognize the existence of approximately 281 species, to which 232 belong to the Agave, Beschorneria, Furcraea, Manfreda, Polianthes and Yucca genera in Agavaceae. Meanwhile 49 species of genera of Beaucarnea, Calibanus, Dasylirion and Nolina correspond to Nolinaceae.

The advantage of the fibers of these plants revise two modalities; the direct use of the leaves for the elaboration of basketry, hats, sweeping mechanisms, etc., It would be proper to mention species of Beaucarnea, Dasylirion and Nolina. The extraction of fiber between the scraping of the leaves which is done with some Agave, Beschorneria, Furcraea, Hesperaloe, Nolina and Yucca species.

The fibers can be obtained from the sheets of the central cone of the rosette, called “cogollo”, which happens in the exploitation of the lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla), the comb agave (A. striata), the Samandoca palm (Yucca carnerosana) and the Jaumave ixtle fiber (A. funkiana).

Also it is implemented the external mature leaves to the rosette, which is the case of the henequen (Agave fourcroydes), the pulque agave (A. salmiana), the stiff leaves agave (A. applanata), the clothed agave (A. schidigera) the Quichee’s hemp (Furcraea quicheensis) and the Guatemalan hemp (F. guatemalensis).

The traditional methods of extraction of fibers depend of the disposition of water. After the cut, the sheets can be scraped directly, or previous to this process it can be cooked or baked. Once they are obtained, the fibers can be used directly in the elaboration of products as small brushes and dishclothes, or they can be treated by the use of different twisting-wheel apparatus. With strings you can make different types of rope and many handicrafts, which in some cases are object of exportation, neverthless, a lot of these products tend to be elaborated with derived plastics. The phisical properties of the fibers depends of the method of extraction used.

The hard fibers of mexican semidesert wild plants "lechuguilla" (Agave lecheguilla Torrey) and "Palma ixtlera" (Yucca carnerosana Trelease) has been traditionality an important resource for the inhabitants of the mexican semidesert and its primary proccesing a way of subsistence.

This hard fibers (that the peasants sales in bulk and to very low price) are industrially treated and transformed into raw materials for brushes, cloth for sacks, and ropes for many uses in the rigging and hard fiber textile industries.

There has been little or no handcrafted transformation of this raw material into products however, and this process could be a very important alternative for increasing income.

This work is attempting to rescue some handcrafted transformations and to divulge innovations about technquies from this region. We are also working in the field of technological for species and suppliers of hard fibers.

Hesperaloe funifera is a potential new fiber crop for arid and semiarid lands. It is a perennial native to the Chihuahuan Desert region of northern Mexico that produces very long, narrow leaf fibers suitable for use in speciality papers. Hesperaloe species are Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants with very high physiological water-use efficiencies which indicates they should have low water requirements. However, little is known about the water-use relationships of these plants. A study was initiated to assess the influence of irrigation delivery systems and water management on Hesperaloe production.

For this study, Hesperaloe funifera seedlings were transplanted to the field at the University of Arizona Maricopa Agricultural Center at Maricopa, Arizona in November 1994 and irrigation treatments were established in September 1995. Treatments included two irrigation delivery systems, subsurface drip and furrow, and four irrigation levels. Plant measurements taken in December 1996 indicated that the irrigation system had no significant effect on plant growth. However, the drip system required much less irrigation water than the furrow system to maintain the same soil moisture content. The wettest furrow treatment received 77 cm of irrigation water in 1996 while the comparable drip treatment received only 39 cm. Hesperaloe showed a strong response to water with treatments receiving frequent irrigations having the highest fresh plant weights. Although the plants appear to be able to survive with very little water, irrigation water must be supplied frequently to achieve rapid growth. Hesperaloe appears to produce a shallow, horizontal root system. At the end of two years, no roots had penetrated to a depth greater than 45 cm.

Hesperaloe is a potential new crop for arid and semi-arid lands, because it grows well in dry and hot environments. Hesperaloe produces high quality, very long, narrow fibers with thin cell walls that can be used by the specialty paper industry. The response of Hesperaloe to preplant-incorporated and postemergence herbicide applications was evaluated in greenhouse in 1994. Hesperaloe was very sensitive to preemergence herbicides at the early seedling stage, but 8 month-old transplants were tolerant to many postemergence herbicides. Ten postemergence herbicides were selected in order to evaluate the tolerance of Hesperaloe to foliar applied, postemergence herbicides in field conditions.

In the fall of 1995 at the Maricopa Agricultural Center ten postemergence herbicides were tested: bromoxynil, paraquat, glyphosate, oxyfluorfen, prometryn, fluaziflop-p-butyl, sethoxydim, clethodim, halosulfuron-methyl, and imazaquin. The herbicides were applied by spraying over-the-top of the plants three times in 1996, and two in 1997. Treatments were applied with a compressed-air plot sprayer. During the course of the experiment, fresh weight was estimated nondestructively and herbicide injury was rated six times. Herbicide injury was visually estimated with 0 percent indicating no injury and 100 percent indicating plant death.

Hesperaloe is tolerant of all postemergence herbicides evaluated in this study. Fresh weight was not significantly affected by the herbicide treatments after three applications (p = 0.05). The highest fresh weight was 63 ± 24 (mean ± Std. Dev.) and the lowest was 32 ± 9 g/plant. Analysis of variance of the injury data on June 6, 1996 showed that only three treatments resulted in significant leaf injury. Bromoxynil at the high rate of 1.5 lb a.i./A and oxyfluorfen at rates of 1.3 and 2.0 lb a.i./A caused significant leaf injury (p = 0.05) compared to control plants 43 DAT. Plants treated with bromoxynil had yellowish chlorotic leaves with white tips, while those treated with Goal had black-brown necrotic spots on the leaf lamina, leaf tips, and at the base of the leaves 43 DAT. Analysis of the injury data on November 18 (105 DAT) indicated that none of the treatments caused significant injury compared to the control. After the third application, on November 21, 1996, those plants treated with oxyfluorfen showed significant (p = 0.05) leaf injury compared to the control. Leaf injury increased as the rate of Oxyfluorfen increased from 0.6, 1.3, to 2.0 lb a.i./A. Plants treated with imazaquin at the highest rate were stunted, but no leaf injury was evident. The rest of the herbicide treatments caused no significant leaf injury. These preliminary results indicate that many herbicides tested in this experiment may be used safely in Hesperaloe to control most broadleaf and grass weeds. In order to obtain reliable conclusions, it will be necessary to continue this experiment for several more years to collect more injury data, to nondestructively estimate biomass, and to measure actual leaf biomass at the first leaf harvest five years after planting.

Equipment for mechanizing hesperaloe production has been under development at the University of Arizona since 1995, with the goal being to provide commercially viable equipment. The three types of equipment under development are for seed harvesting, leaf harvesting, and decortication.

Equipment for seed harvesting is being developed following two approaches. Cutting of the seed stalks with a conventional combine followed by threshing is one, vacuuming of shattered seed from the soil surface is the other. Each methodology has its advantages and disadvantages. Direct combining increases seed loss as the stalks must be cut before all of the fruits ripen, otherwise losses due to shattering are high. Vacuuming seed from the soil surface allows collection of most of the seed, provided heavy rains do not wash it from the field prior to collection.

Equipment for leaf harvesting is being developed following a three step process: cutting, decorticating and compacting. Cutting studies are underway to evaluate three techniques: sawing, use a pair of counter-rotating plow coulters, and cutting with a disc mower. Energy requirements are similar for the three methodologies, but ground speed is limited with the coulter system.

Development of decortication equipment has centered on two methodologies. One involves adapting a sisal decorticator. In the other system, the leaves pass sequentially between two sets of paired, counter-rotating rollers, which have small grooves machined longitudinally on their surfaces. Tests have shown the roller system to be superior in capacity and simplicity of operation.

A large round baler was successfully used to compact decorticated leaves. In 1996, four tons of leaves were compacted with this system, with an average bale weight of 805 pounds recorded.

As a first step in determining the nitrogen fertilizer requirements for Hesperaloe funifera, we estimated the amounts of N taken up in leaves, crowns, roots, and flower parts for eight years at three stand densities. Stands were established in 1988 from transplants at densities of 6750, 13500, and 27000 plants ha-1. All stands were harvested at the end of the 1992 (after 5 years) and 1995 (after 8 years) growing seasons.

For this analysis, “leaves” include those portions of the leaves obtained when harvesting above-ground biomass at about 3-5 cm above ground level. “Crowns” thus include both the true crown and the thick leaf bases. All plant organs were sampled to determine percent dry weight and percent N. Fresh leaves, crowns, and roots averaged 32.3 ± 0.7, 23.5 ± 0.5, and 18.8 ± 0.5 percent dry matter, and 1.42 ± .06, 0.85 ± .05, and 0.27 ± .03 percent N (dry weight basis), respectively. Green flower stalks, flowers, and capsules contained 0.29 ± .02, 2.26 ± .03, and 2.45 ± .03 percent N, respectively. Senescent flowers had lower dry matter and lower percent N, indicating that much of the N invested in flowers is recovered from unfertilized flowers.

Estimated N-uptake per year varied from 5-12 kg N ha^-1 in Year 1 to 383-833 kg N ha^-1 in Year 8. Estimated total N uptake over the 8-year period was 1555, 2493, and 3575 kg N ha^-1 at low, medium, and high densities, respectively. N-allocation to flowering and seed production varied from 17.5% in the high-density plots to 20.6% in the low-density plots. Fruits and seeds appear to represent a larger proportion of the N allocated to reproduction (67%) than of the carbon allocated to reproduction (18%), suggesting that fruit set may be N-limited.

 Northern Missouri looses on the average 5 ton/ha of top soil annually. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has been introduced as an alternative crop for this area. It is a crop that fits in