NEW USES COUNCIL: NEW USES FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM
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Meadowfoam research at Oregon State University has been gone on since the USDA discovered that the oil contained unique fatty acids. Three major events have kept this work going for over thirty years. The decision to domesticate meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.) was made at OSU in 1971. One of the main reasons for making this decision was the ban on whale oil imports. Meadowfoam oil was considered to be a possible replacement for whale oil in many products. By the end of the first decade of research, cultivars had been developed that would allow commercial production, but markets for the oil had not developed. In the early eighties, burning of grass seed fields in the Willamette Valley became an issue, and interest in growing meadowfoam as an alternative crop for grass increased. A meadowfoam grower's organization was formed to produce and market the oil. However, by the end of the second decade of research, oil sales still had not developed. The third major event happened in the early nineties when the growers association contracted with Fanning Corp. to market meadowfoam oil. Fanning's efforts to sell meadowfoam oil combined with research for new uses at the USDA Lab in Peoria IL led to the development of new markets. Resulting in a significant increase of production acreage in the Willamette Valley.
Germplasm resources for meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.) are critical for sustaining the development of the meadowfoam industry and protecting Limnanthes as a species. The genetic diversity of Limnanthes is eroding in nature as a consequence of urban development and human activity. The aim of this study was to survey and catalog the genetic diversity of the present day germplasm collection using DNA fingerprinting. One hundred and ten progeny from 43 accessions (34 L. alba, 2 L. gracilis, 5 L. floccosa, 1 L. montana, and 2 interspecific accessions) were screened for amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) using six primer pairs. Cultivars, enhanced germplasm lines, wild populations, and inbred lines were sampled, as were cross- and self-pollinated L. alba lines. The primer pairs tested amplified more than 60 bands each. There were 40 to 50 polymorphic bands per primer pair (assay) among L. alba accessions. This analysis uncovered patterns of diversity concordant with geographic, subspecies, and breeding origin. Although L. alba seems to be a genetically diverse species, the germplasm base for this crop needs to be broadened. Several wild populations have never been collected and none can be safely preserved in situ.
Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.) is a low-growing winter annual that is well adapted to the Willamette Valley of Oregon. Because meadowfoam has a short stature, it is easily over-topped by many of the winter annual broadleaf and grass weed species in the region. The small acreage and limited growing area have made it difficult to obtain registrations for herbicides to use in meadowfoam. The herbicide registrations that have been obtained are 24(c) Special Local Need state labels. The three herbicides that have labels for use in Oregon are Dual (metolachlor), Stinger (clopyralid), and Prism (clethodim). Dual is effective on a range of broadleaf and grass weeds but does not control all weeds and is applied pre-emergence. Dual will not provide season-long weed control. Stinger controls many broadleaf weeds and is especially effective on weeds that belong to the composite family. Prism controls only grasses. Studies were conducted to evaluate meadowfoam tolerance to the labeled herbicides and to other herbicides that might be beneficial for use in meadowfoam. Expanding the herbicides available should allow meadowfoam growers to select an effective herbicide for the weed species present. Non-labeled herbicides tested were Nortron (ethofumesate), Ramrod (propachlor), and Spartan (sulfentrazone). None of the herbicides tested caused unacceptable crop injury. Studies also were conducted to evaluate the application timing of Prism for weed control and crop tolerance. Prism was applied at monthly intervals to meadowfoam starting in November and continuing through April. The treatments applied near or during bloom reduced yield.
Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.) oil is a source of three novel unsaturated long-chain fatty acids (20:1 D 5, 22:1 D 5, and 22:2 D 5, D 13) and erucic acid (22:1 D13), a fatty acid produced by rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) and other Cruciferae. Because erucic acid has been shown to pose health risks, our goal was to develop low erucic acid meadowfoam to open pharmaceutical and food markets for meadowfoam oil. We developed low erucic acid (22:1 D13) lines by exposing M0 seeds of Mermaid to methanesulfonicacid ethyl ester (EMS) and selecting for reduced erucic acid concentration among manually self-pollinated M1, M2, and M3 progeny. One M1 (LE78) produced less erucic acid than the wildtype. The erucic acid concentration was 3.1% for the selected M2 line (LE78-1) and 2.4% for the selected M3 line (LE78-1-3) versus 9.4% for the untreated control (Mermaid). LE78-1-3 produced less 20:1 D5 (51.4 versus 65.5%) and more 22:2 D5, D13 (37.8 versus 17.3%) than the wildtype. M3 seeds produced 1.3 to 3.7% erucic acid. The narrow phenotypic ranges for erucic acid and other fatty acids among M3 progeny showed that the induced mutation(s) are probably fixed. We have begun introgressing the low erucic phenotype from LE78-1-3 to elite open-pollinated populations (OMF78 and OMF86) with different genetic backgrounds and investigating the genetic basis for the low erucic phenotype. The erucic acid distribution among LE78-1-3 x OMF86 F2 progeny was continuous and normal. The low erucic mutation(s), in the OMF86 background, produced more 20:1 D5 (70.7 versus 65.5%) than the wildtype, but had no effect on 22:2 D5, D13 concentration; thus, the phenotypic effect of the low erucic mutation(s) seems to vary across genetic backgrounds. Progeny from other crosses have not yet been assayed. LE78-1-3 and other low erucic acid lines open the way to the development of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, medical, and food markets for meadowfoam oil.
The unique fatty acid profile of Meadowfoam seed oil has facilitated the synthesis of a wide variety of commercially useful derivatives. Meadowfoam alkanolamides, when used in personal care products, perform a variety of functions including viscosity enhancement, foam stabilization, emulsification and detergency. The alkanolamide can progress to the preparation of the Meadowfoam betaine which is a very mild, stable and effective surfactant and conditioning agent. Both of these Meadowfoam derivatives benefit from the long chain fatty acid structure and non-conjugated double bonds by providing superior liquidity, lubricity and outstanding oxidative stability. A variety of Meadowfoam esters have been prepared and evaluated for personal care and industrial applications. These include esters of guerbet alcohols, dimethicone copolyols, and transesters with other triglyerides. In addition, alkoxylated derivatives have been made to provide varying degrees of water solubility and consequently function as surface active emulsifyers. Meadowfoam estolide, a dimeric ester resulting from self- condensation, has demonstrated excellent conditioning properties in hair care formulations. Cosmetic "substantivity", or the ability to adhere to the negatively-charged surface of skin and hair, results from the use of cationic quaternized Meadowfoam derivatives that provide conditioning properties in a variety of personal care products.
Meadowfoam (Limnanthes) is a developing oilseed crop that posses an unusual D 5 20:1 fatty acid as a major component (ca 63%) of its triglyceride. The crude hexane extracted oil was recently reported to be the most oxidatively stable vegetable oil currently known and the D5 unsaturation of the individual fatty acids was also shown to possess unusually high oxidative stability. In light of these findings, a range of studies was performed to utilize the unique chemistry of the D5 unsaturation. Meadowfoam fatty acids and oil was cyclized in high yield (75-90%) to d-lactones. d-Lactones are kinetic products that are formed through the capture of a D5 carbocation in an acid catalyzed cyclization. Strong mineral acids such as perchloric and sulfuric promote the reaction with optimum reaction temperatures near 40° C. Polar non-participating solvents such as methylene chloride aid in the formation of d-lactone over the preferred thermodynamic product, g -lactone. d-Lactones are useful as reactive intermediates which lead to derivatives of 5-hydroxy fatty acids. d-Lactones were converted to a variety of amides in near quantitative yield with amines at 50° C in the absence of solvent. In a similar fashion, alcohols react with d-lactone to give 5-hydroxy esters. Both amination and esterification reactions proceed with observed relative rates of 7000 to 9000 times faster than meadowfoam fatty acids. This reactivity was also utilized to synthesize secondary ethers from d-lactones in high yield (70-94%) with a variety of primary alcohols in the presence of mineral or Lewis acids. Estolides, esters formed from the addition of one fatty acid across the backbone of a second fatty acid, were also synthesized form meadowfoam fatty acids with catalytic amounts of perchloric acid. The estolides are showing some utility in cosmetic applications.
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Bostx HHHybrids are the result of an intensive breeding program begun in the summer of 1986 with species and subspecies of genus Hibiscus section Meunchhusia. Other Hibiscus sections subsequenstly selected for trials as agricultural plants include members of Hibiscus sections Azana, Bombicella, Calyphylli, Furcaria, Striata and Venusti. Hibiscus from sections Bombicella (except as a specialty food product for limited local markets) and Furcaria were eleiminated from our trials as field production crops because of small size and inappropirate climate/soil preference, respectively, for production in USDA Zones 5-9. Hibiscus species and subspecies selected for breeding trials within section meunchhusia included H. coccinier (multiple populations); H. dasycalyx (multiple populations); H. laevis (multiple populations); H. moscheutos moscheutos, H. moscheutos grandiflourus, and H. moscheutos palustris (multiple populations of each subspecies); and H. moscheutos "southern Belle" cultivars. At this writing we have 5 patented hybrids (patent Nos. 9311; 9838; 9851; 9852; and 10741); a utility patent for bioremediation of salt/metal contaminated soils (patent No. 5,270,130) using hybrids, species, and subspecies in Hibiscus Sections Meunchhusia and striata; and a food patent for use of Hibiscus sections Azanza, Bombicella, Calyphylli, Furcaria, Striata, and Venusli, and selected other Malvaceae, including Abelmoshcus, Abutilon, Althaea, Alyogyne, Malva, Malvaviscus, Lavalera, Pavonia, and Urena, as natural food colorants (patent pending). Primary harvestable products of this new crop include: 1) fresh flowers for gourmet food markets, nutritional supplements, and food colorants (Projected seasonal yield/acres [dry wt] ~1 ton, harvest period mid Apr-Oct); 2) fresh frozen green pods as "Petite Spineless Okra", harvest period mid May - Oct; 3) mature pod for seed oil and seed meal applications - projected yield (seed weight only) 0.75 - 1.6 tons/acre, oil yield ~12% (harvest period June - Nov); and , 4) end-of-season cane harvest, projected yield 6-10 tons/acre, harvest period Dec-Feb. All estimates depend on average crown age, variety and time since field establishment. Harvest data are based on preliminary biometric data for selected BOSTx HHHybrids in combination with a projected optimum field density of 2,500 crowns/acre (far less than the planting density of >100,.000 seed/acre needed for comparable yields with kenaf (section Furcaria species H. cannabinus)).
2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Ross Hall, Auburn University, AL 36849 Mimosa (Albizia julibrissin) was introduced to the United States as an ornamental plant about 200 years ago. It is a leguminous tree that has become widely naturalized across the southern part of the country. Flowers vary in color, from almost white to dark pink, and an abundance of seed is produced in large pods. Mimosa trees usually grow no more than about 30 ft. tall, and are relatively short-lived (20-30 years). These statistics suggest that it is a slow growing plant, but if it is harvested frequently (at least every one or two years) the growth rate is usually extremely high. Apart from the work at Auburn University over the past 10 years, research on mimosa has been mainly academic in nature, with applied research being restricted mainly to its role as an ornamental. Consequently, its value as a multi-purpose perennial crop has not been recognized. Our work has shown that mimosa can be used as a forage tree to provide high quality feed for livestock and deer, biomass for production of bioenergy, and possibly fiber to produce pulp and paper, and composite panels. Over a 5-year period, small (12 × 30 ft) plots in which plants were grown in rows 3 ft. apart, with 1 ft between plants in the row, yielded an average of 4.7 tons/acre of dry leaf material/year when they were completely defoliated by hand every 6 weeks, starting on June 1. During this time the plots received no fertilizer. However, crude protein concentration of leaves was over 20%, indicating that this material was highly nutritious , and that plants were extremely effective in fixing nitrogen. In the subsequent 4 years these plants were cut to a height of 12 inches only once a year in fall to obtain total biomass (wood and leaf material) yield. This resulted in prolific copice growth that ranged from 10 to 14 ft. tall, and yields were between 7 and 10 dry tons/acre/year, which is competitive with other short rotation, woody energy crops such as willow and hybrid poplar. About 70% of this yield was stem, and 30% leaf. Again, no fertilizer was applied to the plots during this period. On several 2-acre fields mimosa was planted in rows 6 ft. apart, and stocked with cattle at various stages of growth. After becoming accustomed to browsing instead of grazing, cattle made efficient use of the foliage, even consuming leaves that were initially out of their reach by bending stems over. In addition, prior to stocking these areas with cattle in the fall, there was evidence of substantial browsing of the mimosa plants by deer, indicating that it could be a valuable source of protein for these animals at this time of the year. Finally, studies in the Pulp and Paper Research and Extension Center at Auburn University have indicated that fiber quality of mimosa is similar to that of other hardwoods, thus suggesting that it may well have potential for production of pulp and paper, and composite panels. In summary, mimosa offers considerable potential as a very low input, perennial crop for forage, wildlife feed and habitat, bioenergy and fiber.
Quinoa or quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) was domesticated between 3,00 and 5000 years ago. Similar chenopod species were cultivated or harvested as grain around the world. Quinoa's popularity peaked in South America with the Incan Empire and declined rapidly with the Spanish conquest. The Spaniards introduced wheat and barley and displaced much of the Incan quinoa. In the 1980's, quinoa was reintroduced onto a global market as a well balanced food. It is consumed essentially like rice as a whole grain and has been Quinoa markets expanded rapidly during the 1980's and have since stabilized with world consumption estimated at 10 million metric tons annually. With edible markets stabilizing, the question arose as to where could quinoa go to increase market share. The development of quinoa's almost unique starch may be a solution. Quinoa seeds contain 10-18% protein, average 6.9% fat, 2.4-5% ash, 2.1-4.9% fiber and 54.1-65.2% starch (K.M. Dahlin, 1991). The flour derived from quinoa was found to be acceptable in food products up to 5%. Beyond this level, breads did not rise properly, cakes had a grainy texture and extruded products failed to expand. Some of these failures were due to the higher than normal oil content but the majority of failures were due to the high amylopectin content of quinoa seed (Lorenz, et al., 1995). The amylopectins make digestion of the starch easier but are less useful in manufactured food products. Amylopectins are a branch chained starch. Amylopectins are the "waxy" trait sought after by industrial applications. Protein isolation from quinoa has the potential of an excellent human food suppliment. The oils, if isolated, are similar to corn oil. The ash is very high in calcium, iron, phosphorus and potassium. The question was, what to do with the starch. As an amylopectin, the starch is superior to common starches as a thickener (Lorenz, 1995). Quinoa starch was isolated by steeping at 10C for 24 h in water buffered at pH6.5 (0.02 m acetate and rendered in 0.01 sodium chloride. The softened grain was wet milled in a waring blender and the magma screened through a sieve. The starch was retrieved by centrifugation of the filtrate, washed repeatedly in distilled water and air dried. Quinoa starch granules were found to be complex conglomerates of 4 to six micro granules. The micro granules were, in turn, 10 times smaller than starch granules from wheat or corn. The starch size influenced water absorption. Quinoa starch granules were slow to initiate water uptake but after 5 days showed significantly higher water absorption than wheat, potato, or barley starches (Lorenz et al., 1995). New applications for the starch in industrial applications will be explored and demonstrated.
Diterpene resin acids produced by Grindelia chiloensis and other related species could potentially be used in various applications in the naval stores industry. The value of the goods produced by the naval stores industry in Argentina is around 31 million U$S. Grindelia chiloensis could complement this industry allowing for new, modified products and is being studied as a crop for Patagonia, Argentina. Stand establishment can be achieved by direct seeding, by transplanting seedlings or by rooted-cuttings. Early plant growth is limited by weed competition (mostly dicots) until the plants accumulate enough biomass to out-compete the weeds. Mechanical control of weed competition can be used but results in removal of plant biomass, since Grindelia shoots are quite fragile. As a part of a scheme to develop a weed control strategy for Grindelia chiloensis, six pre-emergent and five post-emergent herbicides were tested. Pre-emergent herbicides: Zorial 80 DF (norflurazon, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 lb ai/a); Dual 8E (metholachlor, 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 lb ai/a); Karmex 80 DF (diuron, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 lb ai/a); Caparol 4L (prometryn 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 lb ai/a); Treflan 5EC (trifluralin 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 lb ai/a) and Astrex (atrazin, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 lb ai/a). Herbicides were dissolved in 45 ml of water and mixed with the soil at the time of seeding. Three seeds were planted in each of eight 4-inches pot/treatment. Seedling survival and plant dry biomass were evaluated 30 days after seed germination. Dual 8E in applications up to 4.5 lb ai/a, Karmex 80DF and Aatrex up to 2.0 lb ai/a, and Caparol 4L at 1.0 lb ai/a did not reduce seed germination, seedling survival or dry biomass when compared to control seedlings. Zorial, Karmex and Caparol at the highest doses applied resulted in total mortality of the seedlings. Post-emergent herbicides: Herbaglex (MCPA 0.5, 1.0, and 2.5 l ai/Ha), Herbadox (Pendimentalin 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 l ai/ha), Teliron (linuron1.9,2-0, and 4.0 l ai/ha), Agil (Propaquazifop 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 l ai/ha.), Galant (haloxifop-metil 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 l ai/ha) and Listo (Fuazifop-p-butil 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 l ai/ha) were applied to 15 plants each at two developmental stages during the growth cycle of G.chiloensis plants: at 6-10 leaf stage (December 1998) and at peak flowering (March 1999). Plant survival was evaluated May 10, 1999 and 5 plants per treatment were harvested , weight and resin extracted. Survival was 100% for all treatments except for MCPA (Herbaglex) at the highest doses (5.0 l ai/ha) and when applied at 6-10 leaf stage (0% survival). Biomass accumulation was not affected by any of the herbicides applied except for MCPA when applied at the 6-10 leaf stage which significantly reduced the accumulated biomass. The results of these studies indicate that pre-emergent as well as post-emergent herbicides could be used in commercial cultivation of Grindelia chiloensis.
We are developing field and pasture crops that are irrigated with undiluted sea water. Ninety-seven percent of the water on this planet is sea water. Sea water crops would allow farmers to tap this virtually limitless resource. It is estimated that sea water agronomy could add 130 million hectares of coastal and saline inland deserts to the world's irrigated farmland inventory. The principal field crop plant currently under development on our 50 ha. research farms in Mexico and the U.S is the halophyte Salicornia bigelovii Torr. Products from this crop are oil, fresh and preserved vegetable products, and biomass for particle board and fire-logs. Genetic improvement of Salicornia is our major research effort. S. bigelovii is a protogynous cross-pollinating species. We are using recurrent selection to develop inbred lines for use in producing synthetic Salicornia varieties. Research on sea water irrigation, fertility, sustainable pest and disease control, and soil science is discussed. Research on other potential halophyte crops is discussed. Our current sea water farming system consists of three parts: an animal component, a crop component, and a biodiversity component. The animal component is aquaculture, specifically shrimp and fin fish (tilapia) production. The crop component is salicornia and the biodiversity component is constructed marine wetlands. Effluent water from aquaculture is pumped on the Salicornia fields and the wetlands. In our sea water farming system nutrient and possible pathogen containing effluent is never returned directly to the ocean as it is in most commercial aquaculture systems today. The Salicornia production fields and the wetlands act as biofilters to remove eutrophic and pathogenic elements from the effluent and are benefited by the nitrogen and phosphorus in the effluent water. Income in this sea water farming system is derived from sales of sea food and plant products. The purpose of an integrated sea water farming system at the present time is to spread the cost of capturing and pumping sea water over several income generating activities. Our plant breeding and agronomic research is directed towards reducing production costs of sea water crops to the point that future sea water cropping systems will profitably stand alone.
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Salvias constitute the largest genus in the mint family, valued for their medicinal and culinary qualities. More than 900 species of Salvia exist, with more than half occurs in North and South America. For centuries, Native Indian peoples in the Americas have used chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) as a staple food. Aztec warriors of Mexico subsisted on chia seed during their battles and hunting expeditions. Chia seeds contain beneficial long-chain triglycerides in the right proportion to reduce cholesterol on arterial walls. Cultivated varieties are grown in Central and West Mexico. Wild native forms are scattered through the Sierra Madre Occidental from Sonora and Chihuahua southward. Chia have been commercially produced in the provinces of Morelos and Jalisco, seed yields in that site of up to 1500 kg/ha. The objective of the project was to determine the protein quantity, oil content and fatty acid composition of selected cultivars of chia S. hispanica L. These characteristics were analyzed by the Molinos Union del Yaqui S. A. in Obregon, Mexico. Three cultivars were analyzed, denominated: Altos and Acatic from Jalisco and Local from Morelos. Chia seed is a complete source of dietary protein providing all the essential amino acids. Compared to other seeds and grains, chia seed provides the highest source of protein, in this study varying from 29.43% in Local to 22.87% in Acatic. The results showed a difference among genotypes in the average oil content: 31.47, 30.40 and 30.20% in Acatic, Altos, and Local, respectively. Chia seed contains three to ten times the oil concentration of most grains. Also, the seed contains the highest known natural source of linolenic acid, with linolenic acid having many uses in industry and cosmetics, cultivar Altos yielding a higher content 57.53%, and line Local 54.41%. Chia seed are rich in the essential unsaturated fatty acid, linoleic, which the body cannot manufacture for respiration of vital organ, making it easier for blood to glandular activity, and nourish skin cells, mucus membranes and nerves. Cultivar Local produced linoleic acid 23.30% those lines Acatic and Altos 22.04 and 20.86% respectively. The fatty acid composition of the oil in higher content is a follows: palmitic 7.98% (Altos), stearic 3.44% (Acatic), oleic 12.17% (Acatic), and arachidic 0.23% (Local). The average humidity was 6.37%. Chias are examples of potential new crops for the diversification of world agriculture.
Salicornia bigelovii Torr. Is an annual oilseed/forage halophyte crop in the Chenopodiaceae. It is a leafless salt marsh plant with green, jointed, succulent stems that ultimately form terminal fruiting spikes on the upper one-third of the plant. Seed contains 26-33% oil, 31% protein, and 5% of fiber and ash. The oil is mainly composed of linoleic acid (74%) that makes it an excellent candidate for vegetable cooking oil. The seed meal contains 33-43% crude protein and can replace soybean oil in poultry diets. The vegetative portion of the plant is high in salt (32%), as (30 - 40%), and relatively low in protein (6%). The fiber component is highly digestable and animal growth rates are equivalent to other animal feeds such as Rhodes grass, coastal Bermuda grass, wheat straw or mixtures of wheat straw and alfalfa. Evaluation of phenotypic characteristics in Salicornia bigelovii in the greenhouse at Environmental Research Laboratory, The University of Arizona during 1998, has indicated that significant genetic variation for traits of agronomic performance exists both within and between the populations evaluated. Preliminary results show that Salicornia bigelovii can be improved for use as an oilseed crop plant. Development of Salicornia will achieve: (1) new business opportunities for industry; (2) new agricultural options and opportunities; (3) expanded economic opportunities for growers and seed suppliers.
Euphorbia lagascae seed contains large amounts of vernolic acid, a C:18 epoxidized fatty acid with potential application in the paint and coatings industry. We studied Euphorbia because it is drought-tolerant and seems well adapted to the warm, dry, Mediterranean climate of SW Oregon. Use of "non-shattering" mutants developed in Spain has allowed us to study agronomic requirements necessary for commercialization. For this paper we examined the effects of agronomic practices such as planting date, seed age, plant density, and winter temperatures on plant growth and maturity, shattering, and seed size, yield, and oil content. In addition, single plant selections and simple hybrids were made to see if improved plant types could be developed. A breeding and selection program has resulted in 18 different hybrids that were grown out through the F3 generation. For these F3 plants, seed shattering ranged from 0 to 100%, seed oil content ranged from 49.1 to 52.8%, 1000 seed weight ranged from 9.3 to 11.3 g, and mature plants varied in size, appearance, and maturity date. In addition, starting with 12 superior single plant selections from non-shattering mutants, three generations of plants were grown, including an additional round of single plant selection in the second generation. For the resulting seed, oil content ranged from 48.6 to 50.8%, 1000 seed weight ranged from 10.5 to 11.5 g. Plant size, appearance, maturity, and shattering varied. Based on observed characteristics, 11 hybrids and 4 non-shattering selections were planted in a replicated yield trial in 1999. Results from this planting will be discussed. Our agronomic studies continued in 1998 and 1999. In 1998, seed yield exhibited a curvilinear response from 56 to 780 kg/ha as plant density increased from 25,000 to 865,000 plant/ha. Oil content did not change appreciably in this density range, with a mean of 50.3%. However, 1000 seed weight increased from 10.5 to 11.5 g as plant density increased in the observed range. Results from a larger density study in 1999 will also be discussed, as will the results of a 1999 field study measuring the effect of seed age on germination, seed yield, oil content, and seed weight. In previous studies, Euphorbia survived and grew well after experiencing winter temperatures of between -9 and -6°C. To test Euphorbia's cold tolerance, a comparison of fall planting dates under two environments was studied in 1998-99. At Klamath Falls, Oregon, where winter low temperatures fell to between -21 and -17°C on 3 nights in late December, Euphorbia planted on Sept. 4 and Sept. 29 germinated well, but all died after the cold weather occurred. In contrast, when planted on Sept. 30 and Oct. 30 in Medford, Oregon, where winter low temperatures fell to between -15 and -12°C on three nights in December, Euphorbia survived, grew well and set seed in the spring.
2U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory, 4331 East Broadway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040 This study was conducted at the U. S. Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, CA to compare the response of lesquerella to irrigation waters differing in composition, namely, Cl-dominated salinity (NaCl:CaCl2, 2:1 molar ratio), and mixed salt salinity (Na, SO4, Mg, and Cl as the predominant ions). The Cl-system has been used extensively in evaluation of salt tolerance of various crops, whereas the mixed salt-system is typical of saline drainage waters commonly encountered in the San Joaquin Valley of California. A further objective of the study was to determine the uptake of selenium by lesquerella irrigated with saline waters contaminated with this potentially toxic trace element. Lesquerella was direct-seeded in 24 greenhouse sand tanks and irrigated with complete nutrient solutions. Salinity was imposed one month after planting; twelve tanks were irrigated with Cl-based waters and 12 with mixed salt salinity. The solutions were isoosmotic at each salt level: 0.070, 0.16, 0.30, and 0.52 MPa, with electrical conductivities (ECi) of approximately 1.7, 4, 8, and 12 dS·m-1 , respectively. One month later, selenium (1 mg·L-1, 12.7 µM) was added to all solutions as Na2SeO4. Regardless of salinity type, shoot biomass production was not significantly reduced until ECi exceeded 8 dS·m-1. At 12 dS·m-1, shoot dry weight decreased 60 % in response to chloride-salinity and 40% in the mixed-salt system. Leaf tissue contained higher concentrations of Ca, Mg, Cl, S, and Se, than the stems; whereas concentrations of the monovalent cations, Na and K were higher in the stems then the leaves. Salt-stressed lesquerella shoots contained relatively low concentrations of Na and K compared to other cruciferous plants. In both salinity systems, the calcicolous nature of lesquerella was expressed by strong accumulation of Ca by both leaves and stems. Selenium accumulation by lesquerella shoots was strongly influenced by the composition of the external media. In response to irrigation with Cl-dominated solutions, leaf-Se (mean = 500 mg·kg-1) tended to decrease with increasing salinity, but this effect was not statistically significant. In contrast, the competitive inhibition of Se uptake by increasing concentrations of SO4 was evident in lesquerella irrigated with waters prepared to simulate San Joaquin Valley drainage effluents. Leaf-Se decreased from 220 to 13 mg·kg-1 and stem-Se decreased from 62 to 8 mg·kg-1 as salinity increased from 1.7 to 12 dS·m-1. Based on these preliminary results, lesquerella should be further evaluated as a potentially useful crop for the phytoremediation of Se-contaminated saline soils particularly in those systems where the dominant anion is Cl.
2U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory, 4331 E. Broadway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040 In a study conducted in 1997-1998, to determine the salt tolerance of Lesquerella fendleri (Gray) S. Wats., it was found that saline irrigation above 21 dS/m electrical conductivity resulted in high plant mortality. Replicate plots having a combined population of 216 plants yielded only five surviving plants at 24 dS/m and 13 survivors at 21 dS/m. In an effort to determine if lesquerella had heritable characters for salt tolerance, surviving plants were inter-mated under controlled conditions and seed was collected from these plants. The following season, on 28 Oct 1998, seed of the selected salt tolerant full-sibs, designated line 'C', were direct seeded along with two other lines for comparison in a replicated randomized block salinity trial conducted in 21 outdoor sand tanks. Line 'A' was the original seed planted the previous year, and line 'B' was a check line. After seeding, the tanks were irrigated daily with complete nutrient solutions. Plant populations were thinned to 24 plants/line/plot on 21 Jan 1999, and salinity was imposed by stepwise additions of mixed salt salinity composed predominantly of Na, Mg, SO4, and Cl ions. Over a period of one week, salinity levels in the tanks were increased to 3, 7, 11, 15, 18, 21, and 24 dS/m, with three replications. Plants were counted and plant heights were measured weekly. At the time of salinization C-line plants were already significantly taller than B- and A-line plants in all plots, 11.7, 6.62, and 4.09 cm, respectively. Within two weeks after salinization significant treatment differences in both plant height and survival were observed among lines due to salinity stress. Plant survival decreased as a function of time and salinity concentration. The parental line A was most sensitive, C-line most tolerant and B-line intermediate. By 25 Feb none of the A-line plants survived at the 24 dS/m salinity level. Plants were harvested on 15 Jun and individual dry weights of plants and seed were recorded. Seed was saved for analysis of oil quality. Leaf samples were taken, dried, ground, and weighed to measure ion content. Analysis of the final shoot dry weights indicated that salinity and line effects were significant but there was no interaction. Salinity decreased average shoot dry weights in all lines as a function of increasing salinity and ranked mean differences within lines were consistent across all salinity levels from 3 to 18 dS/m. At 7, 15, and 18 dS/m average shoot dry weights of the C-line was significantly greater than the parental A-line. The average mean shoot weight of B-line was intermediate but always lower than C-line. Our results showed that across all salinity levels, the C-line had higher average shoot dry weights (25.9 g/plant) than either the B-line (17.4 g/plant) or the A-line (11.2 g/plant). Our results indicate that a single cycle selection of lesquerella in salinized sand cultures resulted in a C-line that had higher absolute and relative salt tolerance as measured by shoot dry matter production, plant height and plant survival. Selected, surviving, C-line plants in the 18, 21 and 24 dS/m plots were either crossed or selfed to provide future information on the inheritance of the salt tolerance character.
2The University of Arizona, Plant Sciences Department, Tucson, Arizona 85721 Yield trials of plant families of Lesquerella fendleri were grown in both Tucson and Maricopa Arizona to compare the response of growth, yield components, and performance in different locations. Families were derived from seeds combined from half-sibs selected the previous season for both high seed yield and plant height. Germplasm lines from recurrent selections for seed-oil traits were also included for comparisons. Plants were transplanted into the field in single rows, with guard rows direct seeded at both locations in a completely randomized block design. This study was designed to describe and compare the interrelationships of plant height, plant weight at harvest, seed yield, and seed-oil and lesquerolic acid content for plant improvement. Significant differences were seen between locations in growth measurements of different families.
Over 7 million ha of rangeland, desert, desert mountains, and irrigated cropland are included in the Trans Pecos region of west Texas. Irrigated farming is concentrated in the Toyah Basin area of Reeves County, the Coyanosa region of northwest Pecos County, and the El Paso Lower Valley region of Far West Texas. High irrigation expenses, saline water and soil conditions, recurring insect problems, a limited growing season, and changing government farm programs have idled thousands of hectares since 1975. The commercialization of new or alternative crops would increase farm profitability and promote economic opportunities in farming and rural communities, conserve and enhance natural resources, develop new industrial products, and increase international competitiveness. The objectives of this study were to examine the effects of salinity on lesquerella establishment, and determine the tolerance of lesquerella seedlings to postemergence herbicides. An experiment was initiated on October 13, 1998 at the Texas A&M University Agricultural Experiment Station near Pecos, Reeves County, Texas. Lesquerella was planted with a Brillion seeder at a rate of 13 kg/ha. The study was sprinkler irrigated for 48 hours immediately following planting, and maintained by sprinkler irrigation throughout the growing season. Herbicide treatments were 2 m by 8m and arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Ethametsulfuron (15, 23, 30 g ai/ha), and oxyfluorfen (0.3, 0.6, 1.1 kg ai/ha) were applied February 17, 1999 with a C02 powered backpack sprayer that delivered 187 L/ha at 172 kPa. Irrigation water and soil salinity were 4.7 and 1.4 dS/m, respectively prior to planting. The seeding rate (13 kg/ha) was higher than recommended to account for expected mortality due to salinity. However, plant establishment was excellent and final plant populations averaged 2,800,000 plants/m2 Total water applied was 46 cm, and at the last irrigation on March 1, the soil salinity averaged 4.0 dS/m. Lesquerella seedlings ranged in height from 2 to 6 cm, and had 5 to 30 true leaves when sprayed. Ethametsulfuron did not cause any visual damage to the seedlings regardless of size. Average lesquerella injury was 7% with the 1.1 kg ai/ha rate of oxyfluorfen. Lesquerella can be produced with irrigation water over 4.0 dS/m when soil salinity is low. Establishment will be affected when both water and soil salinity are high. The research area had not been farmed for 10 years, and soil salinity on continuously farmed cotton land at the Experiment Station can be as high as 7.0 dS/m. Ethametsulfuron is a promising herbicide for the postemergence control of broadleaf weeds in lesquerella, but must be tested further.
2Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada. Jangulo@polimex.ciqa.mx The enzymatic system of sunflower corresponds to a C3 plant. The CO2 assimilation is performed by the RUBISCO enzyme, that is the most abundant of the soluble proteins of the leaves, and has a double role: catalytic and reserve, because on leaves senescence part of its carbon and nitrogen are used by the seed. Due to the protein reactions with the photosynthetic process, it may be considered that a high soluble protein content plant would have high grain yield as the proteins are related with the metabolism and biomass accumulation. The proteins also participate in the regulation of oil synthesis. In this work we report the relation between yielding parameters and the soluble proteins content, as well as the composition pattern obtained by electrophoresis, in six varieties of sunflower. The experiment was carried out in the experimental field of the University Antonio Narro. Six sunflower genotypes, four from the university (SAN-3C, SANE-23578, SANE-1278 and GORDIS) and two from Argentina (RIB-77 and KLM-123) were seeded in June using a random block design with four replications. Two water applications were dispensed, one on seeding and the other ten days after seeding. The variables monitored were: dry weight of different sections, leaf area, grain yield, grain oil content, soluble protein content in the leaves and grain, and protein molecular weight. The results showed higher leaf area at the start of blooming, the three higher values were attained by RIB-77 (3850 cm2 ), SAN-3C (3295 cm2) and GORDIS (3198 cm2). In dry matter production the order was SAN-3C (7.6 ton/ha), Gordis (7.2 Ton/ha) and RIB-77 (6.9 Ton/ha). For grain production the yielding was GORDIS (3.9 Ton/ha), SAN-3C (2.8 Ton/ha) and KLM-123 (2.1 Ton/ha). The harvest index was GORDIS (0.55), KLM-123 (0.39) and SAN-3C (0.36). The trend in protein and oil yielding was similar to grain yielding. The leaves soluble proteins varied between 33.17 and 217.1 mg/g leaf/plant while in grain the range was 313-869 mg/g grain/plant. The molecular weight of the proteins at different growing stages was variable but coincide with other authors reports. The protein pattern was integrated by 8 and 6 polypeptides for GORDIS and SAN-3C respectively which were the higher grain yielding varieties, confirming the relationship between the leaves soluble proteins content and yielding.
2Catedrático del Instituto Tecnológico y de Est. Sup. de Monterrey 3Investigador del Campo Experimental Valle del Yaqui-INIFAP Apartado Postal No. 797, Ciudad Obregón, Sonora. The canola Brassica sp., is a new introduction crop at México. Is a very important specie in relation to agronomy and oil quality characteristic, and because his wide adaptation to the climatic conditions to this area, however, this crop can be also adapted of north area of Sonora, as well to some others agricultural areas of México due to the wide adaptation of this specie as well to wild forms. The wild canola forms existing in this area, is a representative example of the good canola adaptation. This situation makes México to ocupated the second place after Japan as a canola buyer from Canada and Australia. In south of Sonora there are three oil industries; the best industry have a capacity of 600 tons per day. In the Yaqui Valley Experimental Station, canola research works has been done since 1988 in yield trials evaluation of canola spring varieties came in from canadians universities. Such varieties like BN-00, BC-00, Candle, Tobin, Altex, Torch, among others. This varieties has shown a satisfactories yield grain, however, during the last four years, a new group of spring canola types how Hyola serie is being testing with good agronomic production, agronomics characteristics, good quality oil, and excelent yields, upper to others types canola varieties come in Spain, Australia, and others. During the last cycle, 1997-1998, canola was introduced to commercial explotation in small area (1.5 ha). Three varieties of the Hyola serie were tested, with a yield of 2500 kg/ha in the best variety. During the 1998-1999 cycle, the canola area was 400 hectares with good results. Because of this results, the canola will grown 20,000 hectares as less during 1999-2000 cycle. The 400 hectares of canola during 1998-1999, were planted in a different of soils types from the clay to the aluvial, as well in salinity soils; in differets seeding dates, seedings rate of plants, and differents crop sistems, fertilized and water managements, amongs others. The commercials plots was coducted with researches; the yield obtained in early planting date (1-15 december),was an average 3214 kg/ha, but the highest yield obtained was 3610 kg/ha with Hyola 401 variety. Durin the second period (16-31 december), the yield an average was 2749 kg/ha, but the highest yield was 3000 kg/ha. During the late period (1-15 january), the yield an average was 1941 kg/ha, but the highest yield obtained was 2500 kg/ha. Under salinity soils conditions the yield variation was form 2300 to 1350 kg/ha. Safflower yield under this conditions, is 800 kg/ha as much. In conclusion of this results, canola is a good alternative for the producers of Sonora, México, because the grain yield, oil quality, less water demand, salt tolerance, and good commercial oportunity.
Soybean oil was hydrogenated in a stirred batch reactor at 120 C at pressures ranging from 50 to 500 psi. The iodine value (IV) was reduced from 130 to 80 and during the course of the reaction, samples of triglycerides were taken and analyzed by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Non hydrogenated soybean oil contains three triglycerides accounting for over 50 % of the total triglycerides including trilinolein (LLL), dilinoleyl-olein (LLO) and dilinoleyl- palmitin (LLP). The HPLC data showed that the reaction rates of these triglycerides are markedly affected by pressure. At 500 psi the reaction is truly non selective, since fully saturated triglycerides are formed at IV of 70-80 whereas at 50 psi trisaturated triglycerides are not formed at similar IV s. Analysis of the reaction products clearly show that under the conditions employed, hydrogenation proceeds through definite pathways rather than random saturation of individual fatty acids within the triglyceride molecules. Reactivity was shown to be LLL > LLO > LLP. Linolenate containing triglycerides were shown to react slower than linoleate triglycerides. The HPLC data allows modeling of the reaction kinetics either by considering the reaction rate of the individual fatty acids within the triglycerides or by triglycerides individually. Other applications of the HPLC method include iodine value determinations, quality control within processing streams,and catalyst screening. High pressure hydrogenation shows promise for preparation of low trans margarine, spreads and shortening oils.
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2 Dept. of Chemistry, Old Chemistry Building, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 Solid phase extract is a useful technique for the quantitative extraction of naturally occurring compounds in agricultural products. This paper presents a method for the isolation and purification of free fatty acids and mono-, di- and triglycerides from seeds. The method is optimized using a propylamino silica phase, and a variety of solvents were tested. Since the two classes of compounds (fatty acids versus glycerides) differ with respect to their ability to hydrogen bond or "ion pair" with the silica surface, separation of these two compounds can be achieved by judicious selection of elution solvents. The objective of this study was the isolation of total free fatty acids as well as mono-, di- and tri- glycerides of vernolic, linoleic, stearic, oleic, and palmitic fatty acids from Vernonia galamensis seeds. Vernolic acid is commercially important, since it is an epoxy fatty acid (easily polymerized, useful for metal coatings, and potentially useful for paint). The oil is of a higher quality then that which is currently used for these applications (epoxidized linseed and soybean oils). The method was developed using small amounts of seeds (<120 mg) to conserve seed and to scale down oil extraction. Oil is extracted from the seeds with hexane. Fatty acids and glycerides are extracted from the hexane using a solid phase extraction procedure. An aminopropyl phase was used for the extraction to retain analytes from the non-polar matrix through interactions between the amino groups on the modified silica surface and the carbonyl groups on the fatty acids and glycerides. For the elution step, advantage is taken of the differences in the lipophilic character between the fatty acids and the glycerides by eluting each of these fractions with solvents of different polarity. The naturally occurring fatty acids are quantified using a colorimetric analysis based on cupric acetate. A GC analysis of the methylated glycerides is used to determine the fraction of vernolic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids produced.
Castor oil is an important, unique plant oil because it contains up to 85% ricinoleic acid (12-(R)-hydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid), which is the only commercial natural fatty acid bearing an additional functional group. Two other oil crops containing monohydroxy fatty acids (Dimorphotheca pluvialis with about 60% 9-(S)-hydroxy-cis-10,cis-12-octadienoic acid and Lesquerella fendleri with about 60% 14-(R)-hydroxy-cis-11-eicosenoic acid) may be commercialized in the future. All these natural hydroxy fatty acids that are or may become available for non-food applications have similar structures and are therefore currently complemented by modified hydroxy acids. Castor oil is hydrogenated to obtain a saturated hydroxy fatty acid and dihxydroxylated fatty acids are obtained industrially by ring-opening of epoxidized oils with water. Conditions for this epoxide-opening are usually drastic (e.g. 200 ºC, sulfuric acid) which causes selectivity to be unsatisfactory. The enantioselective epoxide ring-opening under mild conditions is possible by epoxide hydrolases. We developed various methods to hydroxylate fatty acids:
Whereas all these methods yield secondary hydroxyl groups similar to natural hydroxy fatty acids, more reactive primary hydroxyl group are also of interest. Primary hydroxyl group can be introduced in a fatty acid chain by Co- or Rh-catalyzed carbonylation of unsaturated fatty acids with subsequent reduction of the carbonyl to a methylhydroxy group. In conclusion, synthetic hydroxylated fatty acid have a far larger range of structures, properties and potential applications. On the other hand, they lack the structural and especially stereochemical homogeneity of natural hydroxy fatty acids.
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr] oil typically contains ca. 55% linoleic acid (18:2) plus 8 % linolenic acid (18:3). However, the reactivity of soybean oil in certain industrial applications could be enhanced by an increased concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Such a goal may be achieved through genetic manipulation of genes that govern the expression and activity of various w-6 and w-3 fatty acid desaturase enzymes in soybean. Two genes that encode major oleic (18:1) and 18:2-desaturases of soybean have been cloned, but molecular genetic approaches to over-express these genes in transgenic soybeans have not been successful. Another approach has been employed which involves use of natural genetic diversity in soybean to develop higher polyunsaturated oil through conventional plant breeding. The wild ancestor of modern soybean, Glycine soja (Sieb. & Zucc.), typically exhibits twice the 18:3 concentration of commercial soybean varieties and appears to be best source of genes for this purpose. Prior work has shown that wild soybeans carry alternative w-6 and w-3 desaturase genes, which apparently were lost in the domestication of soybean. Three populations, created by mating pairs of three wild soybean accessions, were developed to identify allelic differences among these alternative desaturase genes. Analysis of progeny from each population revealed epistatic inheritance patterns, which indicates interaction of more than two gene loci. At this time, genetic variants of three desaturase genes appear to determine polyunsaturate levels in wild soybean. This hypothesis has been confirmed by analysis of wild soybean DNA with gene probes that specifically encode the major desaturase genes. G. soja genotypes have been selected with combinations of these genes that produce oils with 17% 18:3 and 73% total polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration. These genes are being transferred into cultivated soybean varieties exhibiting genes for very low (less than 7%) total saturated fatty acid concentration. Preliminary evidence suggests that the resultant gene combinations will provide novel breeding lines for development of soybean varieties having higher 18:3 concentration plus greater than 80% total polyunsaturates.
1127 W. Colorado Ave. Colorado Springs, CO 80905 Development of a new crop or product is as dependent upon marketing as upon the research that makes marketing possible. The Michigan Project is a joint venture between Agro Management Group (AMG) of Colorado Springs, Colorado, the Thumb Oilseeds Processors Cooperative (TOPC) of Ubly, Michigan, USDA-Alternative Agricultural Research and Commercialization Corp. (AARC), and the United Soybean Board (USB). AMG had developed an environmentally benign motor oil derived from canola, soybeans, safflower and/or sunflower and utilized additional vegetable oils from jojoba, castor, lesquerella and meadowfoam to improve oil performance. TOPC had developed an oil crushing facility to process primarily soybean oil and meal. The two companies have joined in a joint ventured called "Great Lakes Oil Company" to manufacture and market their vegetable based motor oil and associated bio-based products. Great Lakes Oil Company has aggressively pursued markets for the bio-based motor oils. Due to packaging costs and costs related to consumer education, fleet management systems were targeted. Fleet systems currently using the motor oil include the Great Lakes U.S. Postal Service, the State of Michigan, The Michigan State University system, Rural Electric, the Michigan Soybean Growers Association, TOPC and the Cities of Ft. Collins and Denver. Great Lakes Oil is designed to promote and produce of bio-based lubricants and to enhance rural economic development. AMG and the USB joined forces to develop a "drive across America" called the Inter STATE 2000 to promote the use of these oils and to demonstrate the feasibility of vegetable oils as lubricants. The trip involved a month of driving (3 may to 3 June) covering over 11,000 kilometers. Two new 1999 Ford F150 4X4 trucks were purchased. Vehicles were matched as closely as possible and were made at the same facility within two days of one another. Engines were tuned to the same specifications. One vehicle utilized the bio-based engine oil while the second utilized conventional petroleum motor oil. AMG maintained a website through the duration of the trip. Prior to the trip, AMG received an average of 35 hits per day at the website. Within twop weeks of the launching from Los Angeles, California website hits had increased to 350 per day. By the time the two vehicles had reached Washington, DC, the website was achieving over 2,000 hits per day. The USB coordinated media events throughout the soybean production states and was able to obtain from the State of Nebraska a declaration of "Soybean Motor Oil Day". In Michigan, the USB was instrumental in passing a bill in the state legislature mandating the use of vegetable-based motor oils in the state fleet. The project was able to attract national and international media attention throughout the trip. The American Broadcasting Corporation even interviewed the U.S. Postal Service Maintenance Center in Grand Rapids, Michigan and on-camera confirmed AMG's earlier reports of reduced vehicle emissions using the bio-based oils. The network MSNBC conducted a poll of consumers through its website and found that 76% of respondents would utilize the oil, even at an additional cost because of its environmental safety. It is the goal of AMG to develop additional "Michigan Projects" in numerous rural communities both in the United States and in foreign countries. Improvements in oxidative stability of the oils used, the advent of genetically engineered oils and a rural awareness of what "value added" really means have stimulated interest in these communities.
2Dept of Chem.Eng., University Park, PA 16802 The oxidative and thermal behavior of vegetable and mineral oils differs mainly due to their organic origin and hydrocarbon composition. The triglyceride structure associated with most vegetable oils have poor oxidative stability with a completely different mechanism and texture of insoluble deposit formation as compared to mineral oils, which are primarily hydrocarbons of different shapes and sizes. Since oxidation and deposit forming behavior for any base oils, irrespective of their origin, is crucial for their being considered for lubricant application, a clear understanding is required of the molecular composition of such oils and their plausible behavior under high thermal environment. The high temperature thermal and oxidative degradation pathway have been mapped for a series of vegetable and mineral oil base stocks, for their use as lubricant base oils. The current study was conducted under thin film condition in a micro reactor (25m l, 175, 200° C, 1 hr and high carbon steel catalyst), and the thermal behavior of oils were determined on the basis of their structural diversity. Significant variation in the evaporation rate (using micro reactor) and nature of insoluble deposit was observed through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Gel Permeation chromatography (GPC) with an IR and UV detector was used to obtain the molecular weight distribution of the tetrahydrofuran (THF) soluble oxy compounds generated during oxidation. The structural parameters obtained using quantitative 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy on the oxidized and unoxidized oils gave valuable information on the molecular composition and reaction pathway of the oils in terms of average structural parameters. The novelty of this approach is to explain the various thermal, oxidative and deposit forming phenomena of oils in terms of their structural diversity.
Environmental concerns worldwide have resulted in increased research activity on Environmentally Friendly Fuels and Lubricants (EFF&L). Several continuing studies are in progress at Penn State University to develop and evaluate various EFF&L. The research has resulted in development of marine and hydraulic fluids and vegetable base engine oils with performance approaching current mineral oil based lubricants. Use of both synthetic and vegetable oils studies are discussed. This includes improvements in low temperature properties and deposit forming tendencies of vegetable oils. In single cylinder and multicylinder tests in diesel engines, use of EFF&L gas resulted in reductions in engine particulate emissions. This has been due in part to the reduction in the soluble organic fraction (SOF) of the particulate materials. Some differences in morphology are noted. The advatabes and disadvantages of various EFF&L base fluids are discussed.
Fax: (409) 845-2744 The overloaded municipal wastewater treatment facilities are restricting the food processors to reduce BOD and COD levels of their wastewater to meet the federal limits. The edible oil refineries generate a variety of wastewater streams and consequently some of the individual streams increase the overall BOD level above the acceptable limits set by the municipal authorities. Cooling tower, barometric condensers, and refinery wash water streams are the major contributors to the overall BOD increase. In order to comply with the federal, state and municipal regulations, the edible oil refineries have given first priority to their waste treatment problems. One of the most promising applications in edible oil industry is in the area of waste treatment. However, the nature and composition of the individual wastewater streams make it difficult to find a universal solution to all of these streams. Therefore the membrane separations must fit individually to each stream if the concentrate is considered as the saleable by-product. A truck-based waste treatment demonstration unit was set-up at the plant and wastewater was pumped into the feed tank via separate line. This demonstration unit contains high and low pressure units, stainless steel fittings, and pipes. The test units can handle a wide variety of membrane types and materials in evaluating the potential of membrane separation to meet specific process flow requirements at host sites. On-site membrane separation tests were performed at various edible oil refineries indicate that the wastewater can be recovered and reused as feed for water washing of the degummed oil. The membrane was very stable and effective in separating residual soapstock and other impurities. Quick tests at the refinery and detailed analysis in our labs indicate that the clean water permeate flux at 500 psi and 73oC was 50 l/m2 hr. The second phase of this project evaluated recovery of cooling tower water using ultrafiltration membranes. The permeate flux at 200 psi ranged from 50 l/m2 hr to 80 l/m2 hr. The permeate quality was excellent. The residual free fatty acids in the feed formed a fatty layer on the surface of the membranes and this consequently reduced the overall flux. Recovery and reuse of waste water from the second centrifuge and cooling tower water is technically and economically feasible for the new plants.
With the continual population growth in the United States, the need for suitable building materials has continued to grow at a phenomenal rate. To satiate this increasing need, wood composites are being used in place of whole lumber. To create indoor products, for example, composites are made using an urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesive. Although, UF produces composites with good physical strengths, it is a source of formaldehyde emissions that are classified as a hazardous air pollutant. To offset the harmful effects of formaldehyde, our research focused on the design, synthesis, and evaluation of soybean protein based adhesives for wood. Through the introduction of other environmentally-friendly materials, namely oil-based derivatives, substantial improvements to soybean protein's water resistance has been established. Blending of the various components to achieve synergy has allowed the development of a formaldehyde-free adhesive for particleboard composites with physical strengths equaling commercial boards. For instance, a measure of particleboard's strength is the internal bond value. To be commercially viable, particleboard must exhibit a strength greater than 90 lb/ft3. Particleboard using the novel soybean adhesive produces boards with values ranging from 90 to 225 lb/ft3. Furthermore, soybean-based particleboard submerged for two hours has water absorption values equal to that of commercial boards. This paper will describe our latest results in the area of soy protein derived adhesives.
The Columbia root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne chitwoodi is a serious problem to potato production, blemishing tubers and rendering them unmarketable. Control is heavily dependent on soil fumigation. The continued availability of these nematicides is a major concern to potato growers. Crambe (Crambe abyssinica), meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba), and milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) seedmeals were evaluated as soil amendments for control of M. chitwoodi on Russet Burbank potato. Crambe and meadowfoam seedmeals are processing by-products of the oil extraction of the seeds that contains high levels of glucosinolates. When the seedmeal is incorporated into the soil, the glucosinolates undergo an enzymatic hydrolysis to release isothiocyanate that is toxic to certain insects, fungi, nematodes, and weeds. Isothiocyanate is similar to the active ingredient of the soil fumigant metham sodium. Milkweed is a new crop being produced for its fiber in pillows and comforters, and industrial quality oil extracted from the seed. The toxic compound(s) is not yet known. In 1997 crambe and meadowfoam, and in 1998 crambe and milkweed were evaluated at 11.2 and 22.4 MT/ha. In 1998 crambe was also evaluated in combination with MocapTM 6EC (ethoprop). Treatments were crambe 11.2 MT plus MocapTM 13.6 kg ai/ha, and crambe 22.4 MT plus MocapTM at 6.8 and 13.6 kg ai/ha. In both years Telone IITM (1,3-dichloropropene) at 187 l/ha and MocapTM 6EC at 13.6 kg ai/ha served as standard soil fumigant and nonfumigant nematicide checks, respectively, and untreated plots served as controls. Telone IITM was applied 3-4 wk. before planting as a broadcast by tractor-drawn chisels 46 cm. deep, spaced 46 cm. apart and packed immediately with a cultipacker. MocapTM was applied just before planting as a broadcast spray with a CO2 pressurized backpack sprayer and incorporated 15 cm. deep with a rototiller. The seedmeals were applied 3-4 wk. before planting as a broadcast and incorporated 15 cm. deep with a rototiller and packed immediately with a cultipacker. Certified Russet Burbank potato seed-pieces were planted and harvested approximately 5 mo. later. Nematode counts, yield and tuber infection data were obtained from the middle row of each plot. In 1997 crambe was more effective than meadowfoam seedmeal in reducing tuber damage caused by M. chitwoodi. However, only Telone IITM produced tubers with < 10% culls. Tubers with > 10% culls may be rejected or severely downgraded. In 1998 crambe at 11.2 and 22.4 MT provided good control with 10 and 11% culls, respectively, and milkweed at 22.4 MT (3% culls) gave excellent control. Crambe at 11.2 and 22.4 MT in combination with Mocap 13.6 kg gave excellent control with < 5% culls. Results show that crambe and milkweed seedmeals may be an effective management strategy for reducing tuber damage caused by M. chitwoodi.
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Hevea brasiliensis whose center of diversity is in the Amazon basin, is the the major source of commercial natural rubber in the world. In the 1970s, the need for Hevea germplasm collection arose from the realization that there was a gradual erosion of the genetic variability of the rubber clones in many natural rubber plantations. This was because, most of the clones in cultivation were derived from the few surviving seedlings obtained from seeds collected by Henry Wickham in 1876. Thus, to broaden the genetic base of the natural rubber plantation industry in Asia and Africa, the major producers of natural rubber, it became necessary to undertake an expedition to the Amazon basin to obtain materials for the replenishment of the 'gene pool' in these plantations. This expedition called 'Germplasm 81', was organized in four stages: 1. A 1976 seminar organized by the International Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB); 2. A 1977 workshop also organized by the IRRDB; 3. A 1978 preliminary mission by IRRDB officials, to several countries in south America and the Carribeans; and 4. The germplasm exercise by scientists from IRRDB countries (Cote d'Ivoire, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria and Thailand), China and Brazil, from January to April, 1981. A 'dummy run' to test the viability of seeds from Manaus, Brazil was undertaken in 1980. The germplasm collection covered three states ( Acre, Mato Groso and Rhondonia) in Brazil. Collection teams traveled into the remotest parts of the Amazon rain forests looking for high yielding and disease resistant trees from which to collect seeds, budwood, and seedlings growing around the trees. A total of 63,768 seeds, 1413 meters of budwood, and 1160 seedlings were collected by the three teams. Following agreements with the Brazilian government, collected seeds were divided on a 50% basis between IRRDB and Brazil. Materials for Brazil were retained in Manaus, while those for IRRDB were initially sent to Britain for phytosanitary treatment and then to Guadeloupe for further quarantine in 1982, before being sent to Asian and African reception centers. Scientists who participated in the exercise had to quarantine in a temperate country for at least one week |